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Dangers  and  Chemistry 

of  Fire 


For  Grammar  Schools 


PREPARED  UNDER  THE  DIRECTION  OF 

VERNON  M.  RIEGEL 

SUPERINTENDENT  OF  PUBLIC  INSTRUCTION 


By  CLARENCE  MARIS,  B.  Sc.,  M.  D. 

Late  Pyrologist  to  the  State  Fire  Marshal  of  Ohio 


f*tw?  w nunon  mm 


Columbus,  Ohio: 

The  F.  J.  Heer  Printing  Co. 


COPYRIGHT,  1921,  BY  CLARENCE  MARIS 


THE  TEACHING  OF  DANGERS  FROM  FIRE 


The  84th  General  Assembly  of  Ohio  amended  the  law  relating  to 
fire  lessons  and  fire  drills  in  schools  to  read  as  follows : 

Sec.  12901.  The  state  fire  marshal  and  the  superintendent  of  public 
instruction  are  hereby  empowered  and  directed  jointly  to  provide  a course 
of  study  in  fire  prevention  for  use  in  the  public,  private  or  parochial 
schools  of  the  state,  dealing  with  the  protection  of  lives  and  property 
against  loss  or  damage  as  a result  of  preventable  fire.  It  shall  be  the 
duty  of  each  board  of  education  or  the  board  or  persons  in  control  of 
such  schools  to  compel  the  use  of  such  course-  of  study  in  each  school 
under  their  control.  Whoever,  being  a teacher  or  instructor  in  a public, 
private  or  parochial  school,  wilfully  neglects  to  devote  at  least  fifteen 
minutes  in  each  week  during  which  such  school  is  in  session  to  instructing 
the  pupils  thereof  as  to  the  dangers  of  fire,  shall  be  guilty  of  a misde- 
meanor and  fined  not  less  than  five  dollars  nor  more  than  twenty  dollars. 

Sec.  12902.  On  and  after  September  first,  one  thousand  nine  hun- 
dred and  twenty-one,  it  shall  be  the  duty  of  each  teacher  in  the  public, 
private  or  parochial  schools  in  the  state  to  use  such  course  of  study  in  fire 
prevention  in  the  classes  under  his  control.  There  shall  be  placed  in  the 
hands  of  each  teacher  above  mentioned,  prior  to  September  first,  one 
thousand  nine  hundred  and  twenty -one,  by  the  superintendent  of  public 
instruction,  through  the  county  superintendent  of  schools,  a book  for  the 
purpose  of  the  instruction  of  pupils  provided  in  the  next  two  preceding 
sections.  Such  book  shall  be  conveniently  arranged  in  a sufficient  number 
of  chapters  or  lessons  to  provide  a different  one  thereof  for  each  week 
of  the  maximum  school  year. 

Sec.  12904.  The  provisions  of  sections  12900,  12901  and  12902, 
General  Code,  shall  not  apply  to  colleges  and  universities. 

Sec.  12905.  Boards  of  education  having  control  of  the  schools  of  a 
rural,  village  or  city  school  district  shall  cause  a copy  of  sections  12900 
and  1 2901,  General  Code,  to  be  printed  in  the  manual  or  handbook  pre- 
pared for  the  guidance  of  teachers,  where  such  manual  is  in  use. 

FIRE  DRILLS  IN  SCHOOLS  REQUIRED  BY  LAW 

Sec.  12900.  Whoever,  being  a principal  or  person  in  charge  of  a 
public  or  private  school  or  educational  institution  having  an  average  daily 
attendance  of  fifty  or  more  pupils,  or  the  person  in  charge  of  any  chil- 
dren’s home  or  orphanage  housing  twenty  or  more  minor  persons,  wil- 
fully neglects  to  instruct  and  train  such  children  by  means  of  drills  or 
rapid  dismissals  at  least  once  a month  while  such  school,  institution  or 
children’s  home  is  in  operation,  so  that  such  children  in  a sudden  emer- 
gency may  leave  the  building  in  the  shortest  possible  time  and  without 
confusion,  or,  in  the  case  of  schools,  wilfully  neglects  to  keep  the  doors 
and  exits  of  such  building  unlocked  during  school  hours,  shall  be  fined 
not  less  than  five  dollars  nor  more  than  twenty  dollars  for  each  offense. 
The  State  Fire  Marshal  shall  have  authority  to  order  the  immediate 
installation  of  necessary  fire  gongs  or  signals  in  such  schools,  institutions 
or  children’s  homes  and  enforce  the  further  provisions  of  this  section. 

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LESSON  NO.  i. 


Carelessness  With  Matches. 

BURNS  BUILDINGS  AND  CHILDREN. 

Using  matches  carelessly  sets  fire  to  more  than  500  buildings,  and 
burns  to  death  as  many  as  30  children,  in  Ohio,  every  year. 

In  one  building  in  every  ten  burned  down  the  fire  is  started  by  the 
careless  handling  of  matches.  In  large  cities  it  is  one  in  every  seven. 

The  matches  we  have  are  much  nicer  and  cheaper  than  those  used  a 
few  years  ago.  Our  grandfathers  had  for  matches  pine  blocks  an  inch 
square  and  one  and  a half  inches  long,  which  were  split  part  way  down 
so  a splinter  could  be  pulled  off.  The  free  end  of  the  splinters  had  been 
dipped  in  a mixture  with  sulphur  in  it.  These  matches  when  struck  gave 
the  bad,  choking  fumes  of  sulphur.  On  that  account  they  were  called 
“Lucifer”  matches.  Then  the  “parlor”  match  came  into  use.  It  was 
called  the  “parlor”  match  because  it  was  fit  for  use  where  there  was 
“company.”  The  railroads  will  not  carry  parlor  matches  now,  so  not 
many  of  them  are  sold. 

When  the  parlor  match,  which  no  one  should  use,  is  trod  upon  or 
otherwise  lighted  it  sounds  its  own  fire  alarm  — this  is  the  only  good 
thing  about  it.  The  matches  now  in  common  use  are  not  poisonous. 


KEEPING  FIRE. 

Our  grandfathers’  grandfathers  had  no  matches.  They  kept  fire  from 
day  to  day  and  week  to  week  through  the  year  in  the  open  fireplaces  by 
covering  live  coals  or  brands  with  ashes.  If  the  coals  died,  as  they  some- 
times did,  the  children  were  sent  to  a neighbor’s  to  get  some.  If  there 
were  no  neighbor  near  the  father  would  spread  some  flaxen  tow  on  the 
hearth  and  pour  a little  powder  over  it  from  his  hunter’s  horn.  Then  he 
would  take  a piece  of  flint  and  strike  it  with  a piece  of  steel  while  holding 
both  over  the  tow.  A spark  from  the  flint  would  explode  the  powder  and 
that  would  light  the  tow.  The  flint  commonly  used  was  an  Indian  arrow- 
head. 

THE  AFTER-GLOW. 


The  dangers  from  carelessness  with  the  matches  we  use  are  many. 
When  scratched  the  stick  may  break  and  the  flaming  head  fly.  When 
these  heads  fall  they  often  set  fire  to  waste  paper,  sweepings,  lace  cur- 
tains and  the  clothing  of  women  and  children.  The  smoker,  and  often 
the  mother,  too,  after  using  a match  gives  it  a toss  without  looking  to 
see  if  it  is  still  blazing,  or  where  it  may  fall. 


(3) 

534202 


4 


DANGERS  AND  CHEMISTRY  OF  FIRE 


No  box.  of  matches  should  be  bought  that  has  not  printed  on  it  the 
words  ’'‘Impregnated”  or  “Treated  to  prevent  after-glow.”  This  means 
that  the  stick  has  been  dipped  in  a liquid  which  keeps  it  from  remaining 
a live  coal  after  the  match  is  used.  The  stick  if  not  so  dipped  will  be 
a red  hot  coal  which  will  start  a fire  if  thrown  upon  anything  easily 
lighted.  Look  at  the  words  on  tins  box ! 

All  good  matches  are  double  tipped  and  impregnated. 

WICKED  CARELESSNESS. 

Careless  persons  leave  matches  lying  about  although  one  of  them  may 
be  lighted  by  the  sun’s  rays  coming  through  a bubble  in  window  glass, 
a fish  globe  or  through  a water  bottle,  a round  paper  weight  or  grandma’s 
spectacles.  Loose  in  drawers  or  on  desks  they  may  take  fire  from  rub- 
bing or  a blow.  On  the  mantel  they  may  be  ignited  by  the  heat  from  the 
grate  or  stove. 

Many  fires  which  destroy  buildings  start  from  flying  heads  dropping 
into  trash. 

More  fires  caused  by  carelessness  with  matches  start  in  the  cellar 
than  in  any  other  part  of  the  house.  But,  never  a week  passes  in  Ohio, 
without  a house  burning  by  the  use  of  a match,  for  a moment,  to  light 
a closet.  Many  fires  are  started  by  flying,  burning  match  heads  getting 
on  bed  covers,  lace  curtains,  carpets  and  clothing. 

THE  HEAD  OF  THE  MATCH. 

The  head  of  a match  contains  phosphorus,  chlorate  of  potash,  rosin, 
whiting  and  powdered  glass  held  together  by  glue.  It  takes  but  little 
heat  to  start  a fire  in  phosphorus.  The  heat  caused  by  rubbing  the  par- 
ticles of  glass,  or  flint,  in  the  head  when  it  is  struck,  fires  the  phosphorus 
compound.  The  chlorate  lets  go  of  the  oxygen  in  it  with  sputtering  and 
great  heat.  This  fires  the  rosin  in  the  head  and  the  paraffin  with  which 
the  stick  has  been  soaked..  Then  the  stick  begins  to  burn. 

THE  DOUBLE  TIPPED  MATCH. 

This  is  the  kind  of  match  used  most.  The  ends  of  the  sticks  are 
dipped  in  a soft  mixture  made  up  of  sulphide  of  antimony,  chlorate  of 
potash,  whiting,  glue  and  a powder  to  give  it  color.  Then,  after  drying, 
it  is  dipped  a little  way  into  a mixture  that  has  phosphorus  in  it  and 
is  of  another  color.  The  phosphorus  compound  does  not  have  to  be 
rubbed  hard  to  make  it  burn.  So  this  match  is  easy  to  light.  A short 
scratch  of  the  tip  on  cloth  will  set  it  afire.  This  makes  the  smokers, 
who  use  most  of  the  matches,  like  it. 

When  rubbed  lightly  by  things  that  are  moved  over  them  or  by  a 
foot  on  the  floor  they  do  not  light  because  the  “tip”  is  not  touched.  But 
if  the  head  of  one  of  these  matches  is  crushed  under  a foot  it  takes  fire. 


DANGERS  AND  CHEMISTRY  OF  FIRE 


5 


The  houses  burned  in  a year  in  Ohio  by  the  careless  use  of  matches 
cost  more  than  half  a million  dollars.  But  this  loss  is  not  so  bad  as  the 
loss  of  lives  from  it. 

In  many  countries  of  Europe  the  use  of  these  matches  is  forbidden 

by  law. 

At  Flushing,  Ohio,  a five  year  old  child  burned  to  death,  and  three 
houses,  valued  at  $9,000,  were  destroyed  by  fire,  which  was  started  by 
children  playing  with  matches.  Two  men  were  injured  in  rescue  work. 
Children,  do  not  carry  matches  in  your  pockets. 

If  you  are  careless  you  may  lose  dear  little  brother,  or  sister  and 
maybe  papa  or  mama,  or  the  home  you  love  so  much. 


LESSON  NO  2. 

The  “Safety”  Match. 

AND  THE  MATCH  MACHINE. 

The  “Strike-on-the-Box”  match  which  can  be  lighted  only  on  the 
box  in  which  it  is  sold  is  the  only  match  now  known,  which  is  fit  to  have 
in  a home. 

It  is  made  from  the  same  wood  and  with  the  same  match  machinery 
as  the  double  tip  match.  The  paste  into  which  it  is,  dipped  to  form  the 
head  is  the  same  except  that  phosphorus  is  left  out  and  a salt  of  lead 
put  in.  The  important  things  in  both  are  chlorate  of  potash,  rosin,  whiting 
and  powdered  flint  or  glass.  The  phosphorus  needed  to  light  this  match 
is  mixed  with  peroxide  of  lead,  fine  sand  and  gum  arabic  and  spread 
upon  the  box. 

RUBBED  UPON  THE  BOX. 

When  the  match  tip  is  rubbed  upon  the  surface  the  red  phosphorus 
starts  the  chlorate  and  rosin  to  burning,  although  the  phosphorus  itself 
does  not  take  fire.  Its  head  is  not  poisonous. 

Because  they  have  no  phosphorus  in  them  safety  matches  are  never 
lighted  by  a blow  or  crush.  They  do  not  light  from  any  common  heat. 
Being  useless  without  the  box  they  are  not  left  lying  about  for  children 
to  play  with.  If  a rat  takes  one  home,  as  he  sometimes  does,  to  file  down 
his  rapidly  growing  eye  teeth  on  the  powdered  flint  or  glass  in  it,  he 
cannot  set  it  afire. 

The  strike-on-the-box  matches  are  called  “safety  matches”  but  they 
are  not  safe.  They  are  called  so  by  the  makers  because  they  are  less 
dangerous  than  other  kinds.  Mothers  thinking  the  boxes  safe  are  not  so 
careful  to  keep  them  away  from  little  folk  as  they  should  be. 


6 


DANGERS  AND  CHEMISTRY  OF  FIRE 

They  can  be  lighted  by  a long  stroke  on  any  hard,  smooth  surface. 

Or:  some  of  the  boxes  the  phosphorus  paint  is  smeared  over  the  end 
so  the  matches  may  be  fired  when  the  box  is  first  opened.  The  worst 
matches  of  this  kind  are  those  from  Japan. 

Children  try  to  do  everything  they  see  men  or  women  do.  A toddler 
will  get  a box  of  safety  matches  and  sitting  down  will  try  to  strike  them 
on  the  box  while  holding  it  on  his  cotton  dress,  or,  getting  a double  tipped 
match,  he  will  strike  it  on  the  floor.  Many  children  a year  and  a half  to 
three  years  old  have  been  burned  to  death  by  firing  their  clothes  in  this 
way. 

Boys  four  or  five  years  old  often  carry  matches.  If  they  knew  the 
danger  from  it  they  would  not  do  so. 

Matches  that  can  be  struck  anywhere  should  be  kept  in  iron  or  stone 
boxes  kept  near  the  place  at  which  they  are  to  be  used  so  one  will  not 
pick  out  several  and  carry  them  to  the  stove  or  gas  jet,  use  one,  and  lay 
the  others  down  near  by. 

The  107  million  people  in  America  use  as  many  matches  as  the  800 
million  in  the  rest  of  the  world.  They  light  500,000  every  minute  and 
any  one  of  them  might  burn  a house  or  cost  a life. 

RATS  AND  MICE  WITH  MATCHES. 

There  is  danger  in  leaving  “strike-anywhere”  matches  where  rats  can 
get  them. 

Some  time  ago  the  manager  of  a big  match  factory  kept  several  rats 
in  a cage  with  plenty  of  matches  to  eat  until  they  were  nearly  starved 
to  death  but  no  match-head  was  eaten. 

It  is  most  likely  that  the  fires  that  have  been  seen  starting  in  the 
nests  of  mice  and  rats  have  been  caused  by  grease  from  their  food  taking 
fire,  for  lard  or  butter,  when  spread  on  fine  material  such  as  nests  are 
made  from,  may  take  fire  itself.  Match  heads  have  been  found  in  nests 
mice  have  made  from  finely  split  match  sticks. 

THE  MATCH  MACHINE. 

The  machine  is  a frame  63  feet  long  by  15  feet  high,  in  which  moves 
an  endless  belt  nearly  two  feet  wide,  made  up  of  steel  slats  which  travel 
around  24  wheels  arranged  in  two  rows  one  above  the  other.  These  slats 
are  four  inches  wide  and  in  them  are  holes  into  which  the  upper  ends  of 
the  matches  are  driven  as  they  are  cut  from  the  block  of  wood.  The 
blocks  of  white  pine  wood  are  carried  under  the  belt  and  a row  of  dies 


DANGERS  AND  CHEMISTRY  OF  FIRE 


7 


descends,  cutting  off  a row  of  48  matches.  The  cutters  are  big  tape 
needles  the  eyes  of  which  have  sharp  edges  which  cut  the  match.  A plate 
rising  below  drives  the  upper  end  of  each  stick  one-twelfth  of  an  inch 
into  a hole  in  the  belt  directly  over  it.  This  makes  the  collar  seen  at 
the  naked  end  of  each  match.  So,  the  matches  sticking  down  from  the 
belt  close  together  make  it  look  like  a traveling  hair  brush. 

The  ends  of  the  sticks  traveling  in  the  slowly  moving  belt  pass 
through  the  liquid  to  prevent  after-glow,  then  through  paraffin  which 
makes  the  stick  take  fire  easily;  then  the  mixture  which  adds  the  bulb 
and  last  the  phosphorus  tip  is  put  on.  Between  each  dipping  the  travel- 
ing matches  are  dried  by  electrical  fans.  At  the  end  of  an  hour  they 
are  punched  out  of  the  plates  and  fall  into  the  match  boxes.  The 
machine  makes  from  four  to  seven  million  matches  a day.  Any  one 
of  these  matches  used  carelessly  may  take  a life  or  burn  a building. 


LESSON  NO.  3. 

Death  From  Playing  With  Matches. 

IGNITING  COTTON  CLOTHING. 

About  forty  women  and  children  are  burned  to  death  in  Ohio  each 
year  by  having  their  clothing  set  afire  by  matches. 

Of  these,  who  suffer  death  in  this  its  most  horrible  form,  thirty  are 
children  playing  with  matches  which  had  been  left  lying  about,  and  six 
are  women  whose  clothing  has  been  fired  by  flying  match  heads. 

Several  mothers  die  each  year  from  having  their  clothing  set  afire 
while  trying  to  save  the  lives  of  their  burning  children. 

In  one  year,  in  Ohio,  the  number  of  buildings  fired  by  children  p'ay- 
ing  with  matches  was  204.  While  thinking  of  the  suffering  and  death 
of  so  many  children  who  played  with  matches,  the  loss  of  the  buildings 
seems  hardly  worth  speaking  of.  But  a large  number  of  persons  will  have 
to  do  a lot  of  hard  work  to  rebuild  the  houses  which  the  children  changed 
to  smoke  and  ashes. 

Every  year  at  least  100  children  in  Ohio  are  dangerously  burned 
and  many  of  them  disfigured  for  life  by  these  playthings. 

Never  play  with  a match! 

TYPICAL  STORIES  OF  DEATHS. 

Here  are  stories  from  newspapers : “Rose  Teleck  died  yesterday 
from  burns.  The  child  found  some  matches  while  her  mother  was  away 
and  in  playing  with  them  set  her  dress  afire.” 


B 


DANGERS  AND  CHEMISTRY  OF  FIR E 


“Alice  Heffron  tried  to  light  the  gasoline  stove  and  the  head  of  the 
match  flew  off.  She  sat  down,  failing  to  notice  that  the  small  firebrand 
had  nestled  in  the  folds  of  a cotton  cloth  hanging  on  the  chair.  Her 
clothing  took  fire,  burning  her  so  horribly  that  she  died  at  midnight.” 

“Chiles  Reed,  four  years  old,  died  from  burns.  The  little  fellow’s 
clothing  was  discovered  in  flames.  Just  before  he  died,  he  said  : ‘Mamma, 
I don’t  want  any  more  matches.’  ” 

“Mrs.  Mary  Andrews,  who  had  formed  the  habit  of  striking  matches 
upon  the  sole  of  her  shoe,  was  fatally  burned.  When  the  match  was 
struck  its  head  snapped  and  part  of  it  catching  in  her  muslin  clothing 
set  it  ablaze.  In  a moment  she  was  wrapped  in  flame.  Her  death  came 
from  breathing  the  flame.” 

Whether  it  is  ladylike  or  not  the  habit  of  lighting  matches  on  the 
shoe  sole  is  dangerous  to  women,  either  big  or  little. 

COTTON  CLOTHING. 

The  touch  of  a flame  quickly  sets  fire  to  any  kind  of  clothing  made 
of  cotton,  such  as  muslin,  calico  and  flannelette.  These  are  used  in  the 
clothes  of  children  and  women. 

To  the  36  dead  from  their  clothes  being  lighted  by  matches  add  16 
by  stoves,  32  by  grates  and  31  children  playing  with  fire.  This  shows 
1 15  dead  in  one  year  in  Ohio  from  cotton  clothing  having  taken,  fire. 

To  lessen  the  number  of  these  painful  accidents,  each  grate  or  fire- 
place should  have  in  front  of  it  a wire  screen  such  as  is  used  in  many 
homes  to  keep  the  baby  from  falling  into  the  fire.  The  natural  gas 
stove  should  be  a closed  one  or  have  bars  across  its  face.  Every  fire 
makes  an  upward  draft  of  air  from  the  room.  This  draft  will  pull  to 
the  flame  any  light  material  which  comes  near.  Most  of  the  burns 
from  open  fires  come  from  the  dresses  or  aprons  of  women  and  children 
being  drawn  into  the  flame. 

Stoves  when  red  hot  may  set  fire  to  dresses  and  aprons  which  touch 
them.  A stove  properly  fed  will  do  its  work  without  getting  red  hot. 

CAMP  FIRES. 

Girl  Scouts  tending  an  open  camp  fire  or  cooking  over  it  should 
wear  woolen  skirts  because  of  the  great  danger  from  cotton  skirts  taking 
fire. 

If  a child’s  clothing  takes  fire  it  should  be  thrown  down  and  rolled 
in  a woolen  shawl  or  bed  or  lounge  cover  or  a portiere  or  a coat.  If  not 
held  it  will  run  screaming.  The  running  will  fan  the  flames  and 
the  screaming  will  draw  flames  into  its  lungs. 

Not  long  ago  an  eight-year-old  boy  who  heeded  this  lesson  saved 
the  lif£  of  his  baby  sister  who  was  a year  and  a half  old,  by  catching 
her  when  her  dress  took  fire  and  rolling  her  in  an  overcoat.  Some  time 


DANGERS  AND  CHEMISTRY  OF  FIRE 


9 


afterwards  he  was  looked  for  and  found  crying  from  burns  on  his 

hands. 

Could  you  do  so  brave  a thing? 


LESSON  4 

The  Coal  Oil  or  Kerosene  Lamp. 

THE  CHEMISTRY  OF  FIRE. 

Many  children  are  badly  burned  and  some  burned  to  death  by  the 
blowing  up  or  by  the  overturning  of  coal  oil  lamps.  When  a lamp 
explodes,  or  is  dropped  or  knocked  over  and  broken,  burning  oil  is 
splashed  about  and  the  clothes  of  persons  within  reach  of  this  liquid  fire 
begin  to  burn  upon  their  bodies. 

The  petroleum  from  which  kerosene  is  made  is  pumped  from  deep 
wells  and  through  many  miles  of  pipe  to  the  refinery.  In  the  refinery 
it  is  cooked  to  form  vapor  or  gas.  The  vapor  given  off  first,  when 
cooled  by  passing  through  pipes  under  water,  is  gasoline,  and  that  given 
off  afterwards  is  kerosene  or  coal  oil.  In  this  way  three  quarts  of 
kerosene  can  be  made  from  one  gallon  of  the  petroleum.  The  material 
left  after  this  heating  is  made  into  paraffin,  vaseline,  and  123  other 
things  which  can  be  sold.  The  natural  gas  now  used  in  505  Ohio  towns 
is  like  this  vapor  of  petroleum.  It  comes  from  very  deep  wells. 

THE  COAL  OIL  LAMP. 

All  the  facts  of  the  chemistry  of  fire,  and  of  explosion  as  well,  can 
be  told  in  a simple  story  of  what  occurs  in  the  light  of  a coal  oil  lamp. 
When  the  lamp  burns  the  oil  slowly  disappears,  being  changed  to  gases 
which  cannot  be  seen.  The  kerosene  is  drawn  rapidly  to  the  top  of  a 
wick. 

When  a match  flame  is  touched  to  the  oil  in  the  wick’s  top  its  heat 
loosens  the  atoms  of  carbon  and  hydrogen,  of  which  the  oil  is  made 
and  permits  them  to  unite  with  atoms  of  oxygen  of  the  air  for  which 
they  have  a greater  liking  than  they  have  for  each  other,  causing  them 
to  burn. 

ATOMS  THAT  ARE  GREEDY. 

Each  carbon  atom  is  so  greedy  that  it  seizes  two  atoms  of  oxygen 
from  the  air  to  form  carbonic  acid,  while  each  pair  of  hydrogen  atoms 
takes  one  of  oxygen  to  form  water.  The  carbonic  acid,  which  is  a 
gas,  and  the  water  in  the  form  of  a vapor  are  carried  out  of  the  top 
of  the  chimney. 


IO 


DANGERS  AND  CHEMISTRY  OF  FIRE 


Gunpowder  and  dynamite  do  not  need  air  to  burn  them  because 
they  already  contain  oxygen.  Having  oxygen  of  their  own  they  can  be 
set  afire  by  a spark  and  exploded  while  shut  in  a gun  or  cannon.  The 
force  of  an  explosion  is  caused  by  the  solid  matter  being  quickly  changed 
to  gas  which  takes  up  hundreds  of  times  more  space. 

THE  PURPOSE  OF  THE  LAMP  CHIMNEY. 

The  chimney  of  a lamp  forces  the  current  of  fresh  air  caused  by 
the  rising  of  the  heated  air  within  it,  to  pass  close  to  the  flame,  so  that 
it  can  be  robbed  of  its  oxygen.  This  movement  of  air  is  called  draft. 

Light  is  made  by  the  little  pieces  of  carbon  becoming  white  hot 
before  they  are  burnt  up.  The  hottest  flames  make  the  least  light. 

Do  not  try  to  blow  out  a lamp  while  the  flame  is  high.  Doing  so 
may  break  the  chimney  or  force  the  flame  down  into  the  lamp  bowl 
and  cause  it  to  blow  up.  Turn  the  wick  down  until  the  blaze  is  half 
its  usual  size  and  then  blow  over  the  chimney’s  top;  not  down  it.  To 
turn  the  blaze  quite  low  and  blow  into  the  burner  is  most  dangerous. 

If  the  top  of  the  wick  is  above  the  top  of  the  tube  when  the  lamp  is 
rot  lighted,  oil  will  be  drawn  up  and  will  run  down  over  the  lamp. 
Always  turn  the  wick  down  below  the  top  of  the  wick-tube  after  blowing 
out  the  flame. 

HOW  DOES  A LAMP  EXPLODE? 

The  heating  of  the  brass  in  the  burner  may  warm  the  oil  until  it 
gives  off  a vapor.  It  is  so  thin  one  cannot  see  it  in  the  lamp  globe.  If 
the  wick  is  too  small  to  fill  the  tube  the  flame  will  flash  down  to  this 
vapor  and  the  lamp  will  blow  up.  It  will  blow  up  if  this  vapor  passes 
through  a hole  in  the  lamp’s  collar  and  reaches  the  flame. 

The  screen  in  the  burner  must  be  kept  open  so  the  flame  can  breathe. 
If  the  chimney  is  not  clear  down  on  the  burner,  the  lamp  smokes  be- 
cause the  flame  gets  too  much  air.  When  a lamp  is  turned  too  high  it 
smokes  because  there  is  too  much  fuel  for  the  air  supply. 

The  brass  in  the  burner  and  collar  should  be  kept  clean  and  bright 
so  that  the  heat  will  pass  off.  The  soot  from  a lamp  that  is  not  given 
good  care  fills  the  pores  in  the  brass  and  holds  the  heat.  Only  dirty 
burners  heat  lamps  so  as  to  make  them  explode.  When  a burner  can 
not  be  rubbed  bright  it  should  be  thrown  away  because  it  is  dangerous. 

A lamp  should  not  be  set  in  the  sun  or  close  to  a fire,  or  near  the 
edge  of  a table,  or  hung  to  the  ceiling  over  a table  on  which  a lamp  is 
used. 

The  sewing  machine  is  a poor  place  for  a lamp. 

Lamps  of  metal  are  safer  than  those  made  of  glass,  which  would 
break  if  thrown  to  the  floor  by  baby  pulling  the  table  cover.  Glass  lamps 
may  be  broken  by  children  playing  ball,  or  by  frisky  dogs. 


DANGERS  AND  CHEMISTRY  OF  FIRE 


II 


Squatty  lamps  are  safest.  The  hanging  lamp  has  so  narrow  a bot- 
tom that  it  should  not  be  used  on  a table. 

A lighted  lamp  should,  not  be  left  alone. 

Using  a rolled  strip  of  paper  to  carry  a blaze  from  the  fire-place  to 
the  lamp-wick  is  more  dangerous  than  lighting  it  with  a match. 

FILLING  THE  LAMP. 

When  a lamp  that  has  been  burning  needs  to  be  filled,  do  not  take 
off  the  burner  near  another  light  or  a fire.  The  vapor  in  the  bowl  of  the 
lamp  may  spread  until  it  reaches  a blaze  and  explodes.  Flaming  oil  is 
then  thrown  over  every  one  who  is  near.  Above  all,  remember  that 
filling  a lamp  without  first  putting  out  the  flame  is  very  dangerous. 

When  two-thirds  of  the  oil  in  a lamp  has  been  used  it  should  be 
filled  again.  Once  each  week  the  oil  left  in  a lamp  should  be  poured 
back  into  the  can  through  a piece  of  cloth  on  a funnel  to  remove  dirt 
which  has  settled  to  the  bottom  of  the  lamp  bowl. 

THE  WICK. 

The  char  or  burned  end  should  be  removed  from  the  wick  every  day 
by  rubbing  it  off,  not  by  cutting  it  with  scissors.  When  a wick  is  half 
burned  up  a new  one  should  be  put  in.  A lamp  cared  for  in  this  way 
will  give  a bright,  white  light  and  will  not  blacken  the  burner  or  explode. 
The  burners  for  round  wicks  are  safer  than  those  for  flat  ones. 

Air  containing  one-eighth  oil  vapor  will  blow  up,  if  it  touches  a 
flame.  In  Ohio  a house  is  fired  each  week  by  the  exploding  or  upsetting 
of  a coal  oil  lamp.  The  number  of  persons  burned  to  death  each  year 
by  lamp  explosions  in  Ohio  is  from  12  to  16. 

Candles  while  lighted  should  always  be  in  a metal  candle-stick. 
Many  fires  are  caused  by  workmen  placing  them  on  wood  and  allowing 
them  to  burn  clear  down. 

In  spite  of  the  use  of  electricity  and  gas  for  lights  more  candles 
are  made  each  year. 

If  a candle  is  set  too  near  a stove  it  will  slowly  bend  until  its  blaze 
touches  the  wood  upon  which  the  candle-stick  is  resting. 

Grandmother  made  the  candles  from  tallow  at  butchering  time; 
now  they  are  made  from  petroleum  paraffin. 


12 


DANGERS  AND  CHEMISTRY  OF  FIRE 


LESSON  5 

Kindling  a Coal  Fire. 

DANGER  IN  KEROSENE  FOR  THAT  USE. 

The  use  of  coal  oil  in  starting  a fire  in  a stove  or  grate  is  a most 
dangerous  practice. 

What  is  happening  while  a fire  is  being  kindled? 

if  a shaving  or  bit  of.  paper  is  held  above  a lamp  flame  it  will  first 
turn  brown  and  then,  suddenly,  a gas,  which  has  been  roasted  out  of  it, 
will  flash.  This  flash  adds  enough  heat  to  make  the  shaving  or  paper 
bum  to  ashes. 

It  requires  less  heat  to  light  a small  or  thin  piece  of  wood  than  it 
does  to  ignite  coal  — so  “kindling  wood”  is  used  in  starting  fire  in  the 
stove  or  grate. 


BEGINNING  WITH  A MATCH. 

We  begin  by  heating  the  little  piece  of  wood  in  a match  so  that 
it  will  flame.  The  match  head  has  powdered  flint  or  glass  in  it  which 
gets  hot  enough  when  rubbed  to  make  the  prosphorus  in  it  take  fire. 
The  phosphorus  lights  the  chlorate  of  potash  in  the  match  head,  making 
heat  great  enough  to  fire  a shaving  or  a piece  of  paper;  either  of  these, 
in  burning,  will  heat  kindling  in  contact  with  it  to  the  burning  point,  and 
the  flame  of  the  kindling  will  fire  the  coal.  A pound  of  coal  gives  off 
as  much  heat  as  three  pounds  of  dry  wood.  The  water  in  green  wood 
weighs  half  as  much  as  the  wood  itself.  So,  to  start  green  wood 
burning,  more  heat  must  be  furnished  to  drive  out  the  water  by  chang- 
ing it  to  steam. 

Glowing  coals  readily  light  shavings  or  paper  if  they  are  blown  upon. 
Blowing  forces  more  air  past  the  coal  and  the  more  air  it  gets  the  more 
oxygen  it  has  to  sustain  the  blaze  necessary  to  make  it  hotter.  A coal 
hot  enough  to  make  a bright  light  has  a temperature  of  about  900  degrees, 
or  is  more  than  nine  times  as  hot  as  the  hottest  summer  weather. 

OIL  HEATING  STOVES. 

The  oil  heater  is  dangerous  because  it  can  be  moved  about;  it  is 
easily  overturned  and  may  be  set  against  wood  or  something  which  takes 
fire  easily  and  fire  it. 

Kerosene  is  not  so  dangerous  as  gasoline  but  when  warmed  it  does 
give  off  a vapor,  like  that  of  gasoline,  which  may  blow  up  when  mixed 
with  air  and  ignited. 

Many  fires  have  been  caused  by  filling  oil  stoves  while  the  wick  is 
burning. 


dangers  and  chemistry  of  fire 


13 


All  filling  should  be  done  by  daylight  and  away  from  open  fires 
or  lights.  Another  common  fire  cause  is  that  from  the  placing  of  heaters 
where  they  may  come  against  curtains  or  other  things  that  take  fire 
easily. 

DO  NOT  CARRY  WHILE  LIGHTED. 

In  many  cases,  trouble  has  come  from  weak  spring  catches  which 
let  the  lighted  heater  open  like  a jackknife  while  it  is  being  moved.  It 
should  not  b.e  moved  at  all  while  lighted. 

Explosions  have  been  caused  by  wicks  which  do  not  entirely  fill  the 
wick  tube  of  the  burner,  leaving  an  opening  between  the  flame  and  the 
space  above  the  oil.  Then  the  vapor  comes  in  contact  with  the  burning 
wick  and  flashes  back  to  the  oil. 

Then,  if  there  be  much  vapor  above  the  oil  it  will  only  puff  out  the 
flame ; but  if  there  is  little  vapor  above  the  oil  it  will  explode,  shattering 
the  stove. 

The  right  way  to  put  out  one  of  these  kerosene  heaters  is  to  turn 
the  wick  down  a little  way  and  blow  over  the  top  of  the  burner.  It  is 
dangerous  to  blow  the  flame  out  from  under  it  or  turn  the  wick  very  low. 

The  greatest  danger  from  the  kerosene  cook  stove  is  from  the  heat 
of  the  burners  causing  the  oil  to  swell  and  part  a seam  in  the  can  which 
holds  it. 

STARTING  A FIRE  WITH  COAL  OIL. 

Coal  oil,  or  kerosene  as  it  is  properly  called,  starts  a fire  in  a hurry 
because  it  gives  off  six  times  as  much  heat  as  wood  in  burning  and  can 
be  lighted  by  a match.  But  it  can  not  be  used  safely  even  in  a stove 
that  is  cold.  If  the  iron  of  the  stove  is  warm  or  there  are  hot  coals  in 
the  ashes  the  coal  oil  poured  on  is  turned  to  vapor.  This  vapor  forms 
a mixture  with  air  which  is  a powerful  explosive.  If  there  is  a tiny 
blaze  in  the  stove,  or  a red  coal  in  the  ashes,  it  blows  up  at  once.  If 
there  is  neither  blaze  nor  hot  coal,  and  the  stove  is  warm,  the  explosion 
does  not  occur  until  the  fire  builder  strikes  a match. 

Every  week  some  newspaper  has  a story  much  like  one  of  these: 

“Mrs.  Wood  on  returning  from  church  last  evening  found  the  house 
cold.  She  made  an  effort  to  revive  the  fire  by  pouring  coal  oil  on  the 
dying  embers.  An  explosion  followed  and,  paralyzed  by  fear,  she  stood 
helpless  while  angry  tongues  of  flame  consumed  her  clothing.  Friends 
found  her  unconscious  and  in  two  hours  she  died.” 

“Mrs.  Litz,  expecting  her  husband  home  any  minute,  was  in  a hurry 
to  start  a fire.  She  filled  the  stove  with  wood  and  poured  coal  oil  on  it. 
An  explosion  occurred  and  Mrs.  Litz,  her  clothing  and  hair  aflame, 
rushed  about  the  front  yard  for  several  minutes  screaming  from  terrible 
agony  and  then  fell  dying.  Her  child  of  six  months  was  consumed  in 
the  building.” 


14 


DANGERS  AND  CHEMISTRY  OF  FIRE 


BURNED  TO  DEATH. 

The  average  number  of  people  burned  to  death  in  Ohio  in  a year, 
from  using  coal  oil  to  quicken  a fire,  is  twelve.  The  number  badly 
burned  is  three  times  as  large. 

In  many  accounts  of  persons  being  burned  to  death  from  pouring 
coal  oil  into  a stove  it  is  said  the  can  exploded.  This  is  never  true. 
When  the  explosion  takes  place  the  can  is  sure  to  be  dropped  by  the  per- 
son pouring  oil  from  it  and  the  oil  in  the  can  being  splashed  about  adds 
to  the  fire.  The  opinion  that  the  oil  in  the  can  explodes  depends  upon 
the  fact  that  it  is  hard  to  believe  so  terrible  an  explosion  could  have 
come  from  the  amount  of  oil  poured  into  the  stove,  and  aside  from  this, 
those  who  search  the  ruins  find  the  seams  of  the  can  opened  by  the  heat 
of  the  fire  melting  the  solder  in  them. 

The  use  of  gasoline  to  start  a fire  is  deadly. 


LESSON  NO.  6. 

Fire  a Servant,  Not  a Friend. 

THE  MEANING  OF  FIRE  PREVENTION  DAY. 

Years  ago  the  city  of  Chicago  was  in  flames.  The  streets  were 
full  of  frightened  people  who  saw  their  homes  and  places  of  business 
being  destroyed.  Many  were  burned  to  death;  many  more  were  injured 
for  life.  Several  miles  of  the  city  were  turned  into  blackened  ruins. 
It  was  one  of  the  most  terrible  events  in  the  history  of  the  country ; yet 
it  started  from  a single  tiny  flame  which  might  have  seemed  too  small 
to  do  any  harm. 

There  is  a story  that  this  flame  was  the  light  in  a lamp  that  was 
set  upon  a stable  floor  and  kicked  over  by  a cow.  Whatever  may  be 
the  truth  of  this  story,  it  is  certain  that  the  little  flame  grew  quickly 
into  such  a great  blaze  that  the  country  will  never  forget  the  Chicago  fire. 
Now  we  call  the  ninth  of  October  Fire  Prevention  Day  for  that  was  the 
day  the  great  fire  started. 

There  is  an  old  and  true  saying  that  “fire  is  a good  servant,  but  a 
hard  master.”  Fire  cooks  our  food;  it  makes  our  houses  warm  in 
winter ; it  raises  steam  for  the  boilers  that  drive  our  engines ; it  serves 
man  in  many  useful  ways.  Fire  is  so  necessary  that  we  must  always 
have  it  about  us,  but  — remember  this  — we  must  always  consider  it  our 
servant  and  never  as  our  friend.  Why?  Because  it  can't  be  trusted. 
There  is  no  flame  anywhere  so  small  that  it  will  not  break  out  of  bounds 
at  the  first  chance.  However  small  and  harmless  looking,  it  is  anxious 
to  spread  and  destroy.  If  careless  people  forget  its  danger  and  give  it 


DANGERS  AND  CHEMISTRY  OF  FIRE 


15 


the  chance  for  which  it  is  always  ready,  it  may  become  a terrible,  raging 
fire  within  a very  few  minutes.  Now  here  are  four  points  which  I wish 
to  impress  upon  you. 

1.  That  Fire,  the  servant,  may  become  Fire  the  master 
and  the  destroyer  at  any  moment,  when  it  is  trusted  too  far; 
so  people  must  never  take  chances  with  it. 

2.  That  there  is  a fire  every  minute  in  the  United  States. 

Even  now,  while  we  are  together  here,  fire  is  bringing  sorrow 
and  suffering  to  many  people. 

3.  That  nearly  all  of  these  fires  would  never  happen  if 
people  were  careful. 

4.  That  children  may  easily  learn  how  to  make  their  homes 
and  their  families  safe  from  this  danger. 

We  no  longer1  think  that  we  are  doing  our  full  duty  when  we  merely 
fight  the  fires  that  start ; we  know  that  we  should  not  let  them  start. 
Nearly  every  fire  is  a disgrace  to  some  one.  Every  time  you  hear  the 
fire  bells,  every  time  you  see  the  smoke  rolling  up  in  the  sky  from  some 
burning  building,  every  time  you  read  of  a fire  in  the  papers,  you  are 
pretty  safe  in  saying  to  yourself:  “Some  one  has  been  very  careless; 
that  fire  should  not  have  happened.”  Are  we  ourselves  trying  to  be 
careful?  Let  us  realize  that  we  have  our  own  part  to  play  in  this 
matter.  Why,  even  the  few  of  us  who  are  gathered  in  this  room  can 
start  this  very  day  to  make  this  a safer  town  to  live  in.  We  can  learn 
how  to  turn  in  alarms.  We  can  resolve  not  to  carry  matches  or  to  play 
with  fire.  We  can  help  to  clean  up  rubbish,  because  a clean  town  has 
few  fires.  We  can  keep  matches  out  of  the  reach  of  little  children. 
We  can  learn  to  see  unsafe  things  in  our  homes  and  in  those  of  other 
people.  Boys  and  girls  have  sharper  eyes  than  older  people ; they  can 
see  many  things  which  older  people  have  not  yet  noticed.  In  many 
towns  they  have  been  of  great  help  to  the  fire  department  by  telling  of 
dangers  they  have  found.  Nobody  knows  how  many  lives  and  houses 
they  have  saved  from  fire. 

We  all  love  our  town  and  wish  to  become  good  and  helpful  citizens. 
So,  remember  this,  for  it  is  the  greatest  lesson  of  Fire  Prevention  Day: 
A careless  person  can  NEVER  be  a really  good  citizen ; he  will  always 
be  a danger  to  himself  and  to  those  about  him. 

WHAT  BOY  SCOUTS  CAN  DO. 

It  is  said  in  the  Scout  Handbook  for  Boys  that  “it  is  the  duty  of 
the  Scout  to  know  how  to  prevent  fires.”  The  organization  has  prepared 
a course  in  “firemanship”,  making  it  possible  for  its  students  to  qualify 
for  “merit  badges”  and  giving  information  of  real  value.  All  over  the 
country,  troops  are  today  helping  fire  departments  by  looking  for  fire 


i6 


DANGERS  AND  CHEMISTRY  OF  FIRE 


dangers  and  in  telling  persons  what  the  dangers  are.  The  Boy  Scouts 
have  helped  to  clean  up  vacant  lots  and  other  places  full  of  rubbish  that 
would  take  fire  easily.  They  have  carried  questions  from  house  to 
house,  have  photographed  blocked  fire  escapes,  theatre  or  store  exits  and 
the  like.  They  have  carried  on  public  drills  and  exhibitions.  All  scout- 
masters are  urged  to  get  in  touch  with  local  fire  departments  and  schools. 

The  Grand  Rapids,  Michigan,  News  printed  this: 

“I  am  Carelessness,” 

I am  more  powerful  than  the  combined  armies  of  the  world. 

I am  more  deadly  than  bullets,  and  I have  wrecked  more  homes  than 
the  mightiest  of  siege  guns. 

I steal  in  the  United  States  alone  over  $300,000,000  each  year. 

I spare  no  one,  and  find  my  victims  among  the  rich  and  poor  alike, 
the  young  and  old,  the  strong  and  the  weak ; widows  and  orphans  know 
me. 

I massacre  thousands  upon  thousands  of  wage-earners  in  a year. 

I lurk  in  unseen  places,  and  do  most  of  my  work  silently.  You  are 
warned  against  me,  but  heed  me  not. 

I am  restless.  I am  everywhere ; in  the  home,  on  the  street,  in  the 
factory,  at  railroad  crossings,  and  on  the  sea. 

I bring  sickness,  degradation  and  death,  and  yet  few  seek  to  avoid 
me. 

I destroy,  crush  and  maim ; I give  nothing,  but  take  all. 

I am  your  worst  enemy. 

I am  Carelessness. 


LESSON  NO.  7. 

Stoves  for  Cooking  and  Heating. 

HOW  TO  LESSEN  DANGERS  FROM  THEM. 

By  putting  too  much  wood  or  coal  in  the  stove  at  a time,  the  people 
of  Ohio  have  lost  every  year  about  one-third  of  a million  dollars  from 
buildings  being  set  afire. 

All  of  this  loss  was  from  putting  in  so  much  fuel  that  the  stoves 
were  made  red  hot.  But  if  the  walls  behind  the  stoves  and  the  floor 
under  them  had  been  covered  with  tin  or  zinc  the  building  might  not  have 
been  burned.  When  a roaring  fire  is  made,  small  pieces  of  burning  fuel 
are  likely  to  be  carried  up  the  chimney,  and  fall  on  the  roof  and  set  it 


DANGERS  AND  CHEMISTRY  OF  FIRE 


17 


afire.  Or  it  may  set  fire  to  soot  in  the  chimney  and  fire  the  roof  in  tip 
same  way. 

After  closing  the  door  of  a stove,  so  that  a strong  draft  will  pass 
through  the  stove  and  quicken  the  fire,  never  leave  the  room  and  remain 
away  long. 

A number  of  fires  come  from  the  drying  of  wood  in  the  oven, 
kindling  left  to  dry  over  night  beside  the  stove,  or  lath  exposed  where 
plaster  has  been  knocked  off,  or  goods  on  the  clothes-horse  or  chair 
back,  and  especially  clothing  previously  cleaned  with  gasoline,  placed  by 
the  stove  to  dry.  Sometimes  fires  are  caused  by  matches,  ornaments  and 
the  like  upon  the  mantel,  as  the  result  of  over-heating  stoves  or  pipes. 

SCORCHING  THE  WALL. 

If  the  wood  of  the  wall  or  floor  turns  brown,  charcoal  is  beginning 
to  form.  Wood  heated  until  it  becomes  charcoal  will  take  fire  if  it  is 
again  made  as  hot  as  it  was  at  the  time  the  charcoal  was  formed.  When 
grease  or  water  gets  into  charcoal  it  may  take  fire  without  being  heated 
at  all. 

A stove  must  not  be  placed  nearer  a wooden,  or  lath  and  plaster, 
wall  or  partition  than  one  and  a half  feet  and  if  it  is  that  close,  the  wall 
or  partition  must  be  protected  by  a sheet  of  tin,  zinc  or  sheet  iron.  This 
metal  must  have  room  behind  it  for  a draft  of  air  to  keep  it  cool.  A 
good  way  is  to  hang  the  metal  sheet  loosely  on  screw  hooks. 

All  stoves  should  have  iron  legs.  The  pipe  is  often  the  hottest  part 
of  the  stove;  therefore,  the  metal  to  protect  the  wall  should  be  run  a yard 
above  the  stove. 

Bright  tin  turns  away  heat  better  than  any  other  cheap  metal.  If  the 
elbow  of  a pipe  is  within  a foot  of  the  ceiling,  sheet-metal  should  be 
placed  above  it. 

Liquid  polish  should  be  used  only  when  the  stove  is  cold,  because 
most  of  the  kinds  sold  have  gasoline  in  them,  the  vapor  from  which 
ignites  with  explosive  force. 

PROTECTING  THE  FLOOR. 

A wooden  floor  under  a stove  must  have  on  it  a sheet  of  zinc  or 
other  bright  metal  extending  a foot  in  front  of  the  ash  pan,  and  if  wood 
is  the  fuel  used,  the  metal  shoud  extend  that  distance  out  under  the 
stove  door.  It  is  proper  to  put  a layer  of  asbestos  board  under  it  for 
it  may  have  to  catch  some  very  hot  coals  and  the  wood  under  the  zinc 
may  char  and  then  take  fire. 

A parlor  or  bed-room  stove  should  always  have  metal  under  it,  and 
if  the  wall  is  nearer  than  a foot  and  a half  it  should  be  protected  by  sheet 
metal  or  asbestos  board. 


i8 


DANGERS  AND  CHEMISTRY  OF  FIRE 


\ 


m 


\ When  covering  a coal  fire  to  keep  it  over  night,  remember  that  the 
k»ft  coal  used  in  Ohio  swells  one-third  while  burning;  so  hot  coals  are 
likely  to  fall  out  of  the  open  door  or  over  the  grate  bar. 


STOVE  EXPLOSIONS. 


When  a fire  is  covered  by  slack  coal  it  makes  a thick  smoke  which 
may  explode  when  a blaze  starts.  The  blaze  sets  fire  to  gas  and  to  the 
fine  pieces  of  carbon  which  make  smoke  black.  It  was  a smoke  explo- 
sion that  spread  the  fire  that  burned  down  the  business  part  of  Balti- 
more a few  years  ago.  Most  of  the  explosions  come  from  covering  a fire 
with  fine  coal  to  keep  it  over  night.  At  Lindsey,  Ohio,  a stove  was 
blown  into  140  pieces  from  this  cause,  some  of  the  scraps  passing  through 
windows  and  doors. 

Many  fires  result  from  grease  or  fat  boiling  over  on  cook  stoves. 
Don’t  throw  water  on  it  for  that  makes  the  blaze  worse  by  spreading  it. 
Use  ashes,  baking  soda  or  salt  to  smother  it. 


MANY  BURNED  TO  DEATH. 

The  number  of  women  and  children  burned  to  death  from  their 
clothing  taking  fire  from  touching  the  kitchen  stove  is  very  large.  The 
calico  skirt  of  a woman  or  the  muslin  of  a child’s  dress  will  blaze  up  if 
it  touches  iron  that  is  heated  only  to  a dark  red. 

Stories  like  this  are  often  seen  in  the  newspapers : 

“Iris,  the  eight-year-old  daughter  of  Harvey  Rizor,  was  burned  to 
death  Sunday.  Her  clothing  caught  fire  from  the  stove.  Her  mother 
tried  to  save  her  and  was  severely  burned.” 

The  state  fire  marshal,  to  whom  is  sent  the  facts  of  every  fire,  often 
gets  a report  in  which  the  cause  is  said  to  be  “Overheated  stove”.  A 
sound  stove  set  at  the  right  distance  from  a properly  protected  floor  and 
wall,  even  if  red  hot,  cannot  fire  the  house.  But  many  persons  use  stoves 
with  cracks  in  them  rather  than  put  a new  piece  in  the  place  of  the 
broken  one.  From  these  cracks  sparks  escape  and  coals  fall  to  the  floor. 
In  this  way  the  house  is  set  afire. 


LESSON  NO.  8. 

Open  Fire  Places  and  Grates. 

MANY  ARE  BURNED  BY  THEM. 

In  the  time  of  our  grandparents  the  open  fireplace  with  its  andiron, 
swinging  crane  and  broad  hearth  of  stone  could  be  seen  in  every  farm- 
house. No  newer  method  of  providing  heat  is  half  so  nice.  The  pot 


DANGERS  AND  CHEMISTRY  OF  FIRE 


19 


was  boiled  and  the  turkey  roasted  swinging  from  the  crane  and  the 
bread  baked  in  covered  skillets  with  hot  coals  under  and  over  them. 

This  home  hearth-stone  is  seldom  seen  now,  because  four-inch  wood 
and  a back-log  a foot  thick  are  too  costly.  Its  dangers  were  from 
sparks  being  drawn  up  to  fall  upon  the  roof  and  from  hot  coals  being 
snapped  out  into  the  room. 


GRATES  FOR  COAL. 

A common  fault  of  persons  using  coal  grates  is  allowing  the  clinkers 
to  stay  in  the  bottom  of  them.  This  keeps  the  burning  coal  so  near  the 
top  of  the  grate  that  it  is  likely  to  fall  out.  The  soft  coal  we  use  swells 
while  burning  so  that  the  lumps  are  one-third  larger  than  when  cold. 
So,  if  the  grate  is  filled  full  of  coal  some  of  it  may  roll  into  the  room. 
Three-quarters  of  the  heat  from  grate  fires  is  lost  up  the  chimney. 

“Mrs.  Hannah  Hatfield  was  so  seriously  burned  that  she  died.  She 
was  standing  near  an  open  grate,  ironing,  when  her  dress  caught  fire  by 
a lump  of  coal  rolling  off  the  fire.  She  was  alone  and  rushed  into  the 
yard  and  rolled  on  the  ground  to  extinguish  the  flames.” 

THE  HEARTH. 

The  brick  or  stone  hearth  in  front  of  a grate  should  be  at  least  two 
feet  wide. 

The  use  of  a sheet-iron  blower  to  force  the  draft  of  air  through  the 
kindling  and  fuel  to  start  a fire  is  liable  to  make  the  draft  of  air  so  strong 
that  it  will  carry  sparks  and  red-hot  pieces  of  kindling  out  upon  the  roof. 
This  is  a common  way  of  burning  houses.  While  a blower  is  on,  the 
chimney  top  should  be  watched  by  some  one.  A newspaper  used  for 
blowing  is  likely  to  take  fire  and  burn  things  on  the  mantel. 

A big  fire  in  a grate  often  fires  mantel  coverings.  Excessive  heat 
may  set  fire  to  matches  on  the  mantel. 

“While  Stella  Allison  was  dusting  the  mantel-piece  her  apron  was 
drawn  into  the  grate  and  ignited.  Instantly  she  was  enveloped  by  fire. 
The  flame  was  put  out  by  rolling  her  in  bedclothes,  but  she  died  in  agony 
in  a few  hours.” 

The  rolling  of  hot  coals  from  the  top  of  the  grate  or  through  holes 
from  bars  being  broken  out  is  the  most  common  cause  of  houses  being 
burned  from  grates.  Coal  sometimes  snaps  and  flies  into  the  room  be- 
cause natural  gas  in  it  explodes.  This  happens  in  coal  not  yet  hot  enough 
to  fire  a carpet  if  it  does  jump  out. 


20 


DANGERS  AND  CHEMISTRY  OF  FIRE 


TO  PROTECT  BABY. 

Every  open  grate  should  have  a wire  fender  in  front  of  it.  If  it 
has  not,  toddling  children  may  fall  into  it  or  older  ones  may  get  so  close 
to  the  grate  that  their  clothes  take  fire. 

“The  four-year-old  daughter  of  James  Fuller  was  pushed  into  the 
grate  by  her  six-year-old  brother  while  playing,  and  burned  so  badly  she 
died.” 

Many  deaths  come  from  the  dresses  of  children,  and  women,  too, 
being  fired  by  the  draft  of  the  flue  drawing  them  against  grates  or  natural 
gas  stoves. 

“In  passing  too  near  a gas  grate  in  her  home  in  Newburg,  the 
clothing  of  Harriet  Green,  four-year-old  daughter  of  the  city  solicitor 
of  that  town,  caught  fire  and  she  was  fatally  burned.” 

“Laura  Akers,  fourteen,  was  roasted  alive  and  fell  dead  in  the  street 
after  running  from  house  to  house  with  her  clothing  aflame,  crying  for 
help.  When  the  girl  was  building  a fire  in  the  grate  her  apron  took  fire.” 

TO  PROTECT  AGAINST  RANGES. 

If  a kitchen  range  is  placed  within  a foot  and  a half  of  any  wooden 
wall  or  partition,  the  wood  should  be  protected  by  a sheet  of  iron  or  tin 
reaching  from  the  floor  to  a yard  above  the  range. 

A range  placed  four  inches  from  a wall  of  lath  and  plaster  may  heat 
a lath  so  hot  it  will  take  fire,  although  the  plaster  over  it  is  not  broken 
or  cracked. 

All  ranges  which  have  no  legs  and  which  have  no  ash  pans  must 
have  brick  under  them  and  under  the  brick  must  be  cement  or  sheet-iron. 

All  lath  and  plaster  of  wood  ceilings  over  all  large  ranges,  and  ranges 
in  hotels  and  restaurants,  should  be  guarded  by  metal  hoods  having 
ventilating  pipes.  These  pipes  should  be  covered  with  asbestos  cloth 
and  should  not  pass  through  a floor. 


LESSON  NO.  9. 

Fires  from  Chimneys. 

PUTTING  OUT  BURNING  SOOT. 

A flue  is  a tube  through  which  the  smoke  from  a stove,  grate  or 
furnace  passes  from  a fire  to  the  open  air  above  a building.  A chimney 
01*  brick,  stone,  or  concrete  forms  the  part  of  the  flue  which  is  in  or 
"**side  the  wall.  A stovepipe  is  the  tube  of  sheet-iron  which  forms  the 
part  ai  the  flue  from  a stove  to  a chimney. 


DANGERS  AND  CHEMISTRY  OF  FIRE 


21 


Woodwork  too  close  to  a flue  is  likely  to  take  fire  A crack  in  a 
flue  will  let  sparks  pass  out  into  the  room  and  they  may  set  fire  to  the 
house.  Openings  in  flues  cause  two  or  more  fires  in  houses  every  day 
in  Ohio.  To  rebuild  them  costs  about  half  a million  dollars  a year. 
Nearly  all  this  money  would  be  saved  if  the  chimneys  and  stovepipes  were 
looked  at  once  a week  and  faults  found  in  them  were  fixed. 

It  is  most  important  that  they  be  examined  and  fixed  when  the  cold 
weather,  which  makes  need  for  hot  fires,  comes  on.  The  night  on  which 
the  first  “killing  frost”  is  most  likely  to  come  is  that  of  October  18. 
That  is  the  time  when  it  becomes  so  cold  that  potted  plants  will  shrivel 
and  die  if  left  out  of  doors.  Before  this  night  the  chimney  should  be 
examined  for  cracks  and  the  soot  in  it  brushed  down  and  removed. 
Stovepipes  should  be  taken  down  and  cleaned. 

If  natural  gas  is  used,  there  is  little  soot  to  take  away,  but  there 
is  crumbled  mortar  at  the  bottom  of  the  chimney,  which  is  liable  to  choke 
the  small  stovepipe.  The  mortar  between  the  bricks  crumbles  out  be- 
cause of  the  acid  fumes  in  the  smoke.  If  the  pipe  should  get  full  of 
crumbled  mortar,  persons  sleeping  in  the  room  might  be  choked  to  death 
by  gas. 


WHY  CHIMNEYS  CRACK. 

Holes  in  flues  may  be  caused  in  many  ways.  The  settling  of  its 
foundation  or  the  crumbling  of  soft  brick  or  poor  mortar  may  make  a 
crack  in  a chimney  through  which  sparks  can  pass  to  the  dry  woodwork 
near  by. 

The  common  way  of  building  a brick  chimney,  upon  joists,  is  bad, 
because  of  the  danger  of  the  chimney  cracking  from  the  twisting  of  the 
joists.  Chimneys  so  built  often  have  as  their  base  a plank  whose  only 
protection  from  sparks  and  heat  is  a layer  of  mortar  on  it.  Many  fires 
result  from  this  practice. 

Sometimes  a chimney  in  settling  forms  a crack  because  one  side  of 
it  is  held  up  by  the  floor  or  roof  timbers.  Nails  driven  into  brick 
chimneys  are  likely  to  come  out,  leaving  holes.  A joist-end  should  not 
rest  in  a chimney  wall,  because  it  might  take  fire.  Tile  chimneys  of  all 
sorts  are  unsafe  because  they  are  very  likely  to  crack  off  at  the  level  of 
the  roof  where  cold  air  strikes  them.  A hood  on  a chimney  top  should 
make  np  offset  to  hold  soot. 

A number  of  fires  come  from  sparks  or  burning  soot  passing  through 
a bad  joint  between  the  pipe  and  chimney.  Fires  from  defective  chim- 
neys, usually  being  in  the  attic,  get  a good  start  in  the  dryest  of  wood 
before  the  alarm  is  raised.  Attics  being  difficult  to  get  into  with  a water 
bucket,  the  fire  is  likely  to  get  beyond  control. 

A chimney  wall  should  be  as  thick  as  the  length  of  a brick.  The  open- 
ing in  the  chimney  should  be  one-tenth  the  size  of  the  fireplace  it  serves. 


22 


DANGERS  AND  CHEMISTRY  OF  FIRE 


Chimneys  should  always  be  built  from  a solid  foundation  in  the  cellar 
and  with  a well-fitted  iron  door  at  the  bottom  through  which  soot  can 
be  cleaned  out. 

BURNING  OUT  SOOT. 

Soot,  being  a mass  of  fine  grains  of  carbon,  makes  a hot  fire. 
When  masses  of  it  in  a chimney  take  fire,  the  strong  current  of  air 
rushing  in  from  below,  to  supply  the  oxygen  needed  to  unite  with  the 
carbon  to  form  carbonic  acid  gas,  makes  a draft  powerful  enough  to  carry 
the  burning  material  out  through  the  chimney-top  and  to  spread  its  glow- 
ing particles  over  the  roof.  A piece  of  paper  if  thrown  into  a grate 
may  be  drawn  up  while  blazing  and  set  fire  to  soot  or  the  roof. 

For  putting  out  soot  fires  nothing  which  is  easy  to  get  is  so  good 
as  common  sault  if  plenty  of  it  is  thrown  upon  the  fire.  It  produces 
a gas,  in  which  nothing  can  burn.  Many  of  our  parents  have  seen  it 
tried  during  the  burning  out  of  the  big  mud  and  sitck  chimney  of  the 
old  home.  If  sulphur  is  at  hand,  use  it,  rather  than  salt,  for  the  burning 
of  sulphur  produces  a gas  which  puts  out  the  fire  by  greedily  taking  up 
all  the  oxygen  in  the  chimney.  A fire  may  be  put  out  in  this  way  even 
after  the  woodwork  around  the  chimney  has  been  lighted. 

The  firing  of  a pistol  up  the  chimney  will  bring  down  the  burning 
soot  and  put  an  end  to  the  fire1  in  the  chimney,  but  may  ignite  something 
in  the  room  below. 

Bad  flues  burn  more  homes  than  any  other  fire  cause. 

NOTE:  — Some  of  the  facts  in  this  lesson  are  directed  particularly  to  the  teachers 
in  frame  school  houses. 


LESSON  NO.  10. 

Stovepipes  and  Smoke. 

HOW  TO  FEED  A STOVE. 

A stovepipe  becoming  red-hot  and  firing  the  wall  behind  it  is  a 
common  cause  of  the  burning  of  a building.  A good  cleaning  of  pipes 
not  only  shows  loose  joints,  rust  holes  and  open  seams  but  increases  the 
heat  they  give  out.  Soot  holds  heat  better  than  a feather-bed  — one-fifth 
better.  A large  part  of  the  heat  from  a fire  in  a stove  comes  out  through 
the  pipe  because  the  iron  in  it  is  so  thin.  In  the  parlor  this  heat  is  much 
greater  if  the  pipe  is  not  lined  with  soot.  It  has  been  found  that  soot 
is  the  best  covering  for  steam  pipes  to  prevent  loss  of  heat  from  them. 

An  elbow  in  a stovepipe  lessens  the  dangers  of  pieces  of  kindling 
or  fuel  being  drawn  from  the  chimney  top  and  lighting  still  red-hot  on 


DANGERS  AND  CHEMISTRY  OF  FIRE 


23 


the  shingles.  If  such  sparks  are  given  elbow  room  they  are  likely  to 
bump  in  making  the  turn  and  fall  back  harmless.  While  a fire  is  burning 
the  air  in  a chimney  travels  up  at  the  rate  of  three  to  six  feet  a second. 

WHY  DOES  A FLUE  DRAW? 

When  air  is  warmed  it  swells  just  as  wood  swells  when  wet.  It 
then  takes  up  more  space  than  the  cold  air  around  it.  So,  it  is  lighter 
than  before  and  the  heavier  cold  air  forces  it  up  to  float  above  it,  just 
as  the  cork  of  a fishing  line  is  forced  to  the  top  of  water  when  a fish 
lets  go  after  pulling  it  under. 

A pipe  must  not  be  pushed  into  a flue  far  enough  to  choke  it. 

A stovepipe  hole  in  the  chimney  should  not  be  stopped  by  putting 
paper  or  rags  in  it,  or  be  covered  with  wall  paper.  It  should  be  filled  with 
bricks  and  mortar.  A plug  of  tin,  such  as  is  often  used  for  this  purpose, 
will  get  dangerously  hot  if  soot  behind  it  takes  fire  and  then  the  house 
will  be  set  afire. 

Pipes  that  are  not  exactly  the  same  size  must  not  be  put  together. 
Crimping  a piece  of  pipe  to  make  it  small  enough  to  fit  leaves  openings 
for  sparks. 

A stovepipe  should  not  be  passed  through  a roof  or  wall  — even  in  a 
summer  kitchen.  Sparks  from  it  may  light  the  shingles  covering  the 
house,  or  the  rubbish  or  birds’  nests  in  the  eaves. 

If  a pipe  must  pass  through  a wooden  or  lath  and  plaster  partition 
it  should  have  around  it  a double  collar  of  tin,  zinc  or  sheet  iron  in  which 
there  is  a space  of  at  least  one  inch  through  which  cool  air  can  pass. 

CLEAN  THE  PIPE. 

Every  fall  all  stovepipes  must  be  thoroughly  cleaned.  Jarring  the 
soot  out  or  mopping  it  is  not  enough.  A scraper  must  be  used  inside  it 
to  remove  scales  which  might  soon  fall  out  leaving  flaws  in  the  pipe 
through  which  sparks  might  fly  out  instead  of  up. 

“A  fly  and  a flea 

In  a pipe  were  imprisoned. 

‘Let  us  flee!’  said  the  fly, 

‘Let  us  fly!’  said  the  flea; 

So  they  flew  through  a flaw  in  the  flue.” 

SMOKE. 

Smoke  seen  coming  from  a chimney  shows  that  fuel  is  being  wasted. 
If  a fire  in  a stove  has  just  enough  air  and  room  enough  in  which  to  use 
it,  the  smoke  is  nothing  but  carbonic  acid  gas,  vapor  and  water,  neither 
of  which  can  be  seen.  Smoke  that  can  be  seen  is  made  black  by  small 
bits  of  soot  which  are  unburned  carbon  from  the  coal  or  wood.  This 
means  a waste  of  money  and  fuel. 


24 


DANGERS  AND  CHEMISTRY  OF  FIRE 


THE  GASES. 

The  carbon  is  but  a small  part. of  the  waste  due  to  imperfect  burn- 
ing. Its  being  there  shows  that  part  of  the  gases  roasted  out  of  the  fuel 
are  not  being  burned.  The  burning  of  these  gases  adds  greatly  to  the 
heat  of  the  fire.  If  the  fire  were  given  air  enough  the  soot  and  gases 
would  burn. 

To  get  all  the  heat  from  coal,  it  must  be  fed  to  the  fire  in  shovel- 
fuls— not  in  bucketfuls.  If  too  much  is  put  on  at  once  much  of  the 
soot  goes  out  into  the  air  to  poison  plants  and  soil  our  faces  and  clothes. 
The  gas  given  off  in  the  burning  of  any  fuel  with  just  enough  air,  is  a 
plant  food.  If  the  burning  is  not  perfect,  from  lack  of  air,  the  smoke 
contains  sulphur  which  is  a plant  poison. 

Covering  a fire  entirely  with  coal  prevents  the  needed  air  passing 
through  it.  The  smoke  from  factories  which  poisons  the  air  in  cities, 
puts  grime  on  the  wall  paper  and  smudge  on  the  tablecloth,  makes  a 
heavy  cost  on  health  and  money  to  city  people.  It  is  a loss  to  the  owner 
of  the  factory,  too.  If  he  should  have  a proper  furnace  under  the  boiler 
in  his  factory,  he  would  save  money  in  fuel.  Within  a few  years  city 
laws  will  stop  the  smoke  waste  because  it  affects  our  health  and  also 
increases  bills  for  washing. 

When  smoke  appears  in  the  school  room  or  there  is  a cry  of  “fire” 
wait  for  the  teacher  to  tell  you  what  to  do.  You  may  lose  your  life  if 
you  do  not.  One  hundred  and  sixty-four  children  lost  their  lives  in  the 
burning  schoolhouse  at  Collinwpod,  near  Cleveland.  They  didn’t  mind 
their  teachers  in  the  fire  drill.  In  their  fright  they  piled  up  against  the 
door.  Many  of  them  did  not  suffer  from  being  burned,  because  the  gases 
from  the  flames  put  them  to  sleep  before  the  fire  reached  them. 


LESSON  NO.  ii. 

Sparks  and  Playing  with  Fire. 

WHAT  IS  A SPARK? 

A spark  is  a small  piece  of  red  hot  carbon,  a glowing  bit  of  char- 
coal, which  escapes  from  any  substance  that  is  burning.  It  escapes 
because  the  force  of  the  upward  draft,  made  by  hot  air,  is  strong  enough 
to  carry  light  bodies  up  with  it.  The  length  of  time  it  stays  hot  enough 
to  set  anything  afire  depends  upon  its  size.  The  smaller  it  is  the  sooner 
it  cools. 

The  number  of  sparks  from  burning  sticks  of  different  kinds  of 
wood  varies  greatly.  Hickory  gives  off  the  greatest  number  and  buckeye 
the  least.  There  is  more  danger  from  sparks  in  burning  shavings  than 
sticks,  because  the  draft  of  a flue  is  so  likely  to  carry  pieces  of  shavings 


Dangers  and  chemistry  of  fire  25 

up  where  they  may  drop  on  the  roof  before  they  are  entirely  burned. 
Soft  coal  makes  fewer  sparks  than  wood  and  anthracite  coal  makes 
almost  none. 

A GREAT  LOSS  OF  MONEY. 

More  than  one-third  of  Ohio’s  loss  of  money  by  fire  is  from  flying 
sparks.  Every  year  2,000  buildings  are  set  afire  by  them.  Over  half  of 
these  buildings  were  fired  by  sparks  which  got  out  through  chimney  tops, 
cracks  in  chimneys  and  open  joints  in  stovepipes.  The  greatest  number 
was  from  sparks  drawn  up  through  chimney  tops  falling  on  shingle  roofs. 

A fortune  will  come  to  a boy  who  invents  a screen  or  other  thing 
which  will  stop  sparks  from  flying  out  of  chimney  tops  without  spoiling 
the  draft  of  the  flue. 

It  is  a good  practice  to  paint  shingle  roofs.  Paint  not  only  makes 
them  less  likely  to  rot  but  prevents  the  forming  of  fuzz  on  them.  This 
fuzz  being  a very  fine  kindling,  is  easily  lighted  by  a spark.  The  fuzz 
which  forms  on  beams  and  boards  in  factories,  stables,  outhouses  and 
fences  is  likely  to  take  fire  from  flying  sparks.  The  danger  can  be  re- 
moved by  giving  them  a coat  of  whitewash.  Whitewash  holds  down  the 
fuzz  under  a layer  of  slaked  lime,  which  will  not  burn  easily,  and  in  put- 
ting on  the  whitewash,  cobwebs,  which  often  catch  sparks  are  brushed 
away. 

It  is  better  still  to  use  shingles  made  of  material  which  will  not  burn. 
These  last  longer  than  wooden  shingles,  too,  and  cost  less  in  the  end. 

BURNING  BIRDS’  NESTS. 

A number  of  fires  have  been  caused  from  sparks  lighting  in  birds’ 
nests  in  the  eaves  of  houses  and  in  openings  made  to  let  air  into  store- 
houses and  mills.  In  Cleveland  sparks  caught  in  a bird’s  nest  two  hun- 
dred feet  deep  in  a church  tower.  Birds’  nests  are  made  from  the  very 
finest  dry  stuff  the  bird  can  find  and  the  English  sparrows  now  build 
nests  in  nearly  every  opening  in  or  near  the  tops  of  city  buildings.  This 
makes  it  best  to  cover  all  such  openings  with  screens  of  woven  wire. 
Not  long  ago  a large  mill  and  elevator  was  seen  to  take  fire  from  a spark 
falling  in  a sparrow’s  nest.  It  burned  to  the  ground. 

Ohio  having  colder  winters  than  England,  from  whence  the  spar- 
rows came,  they  use  here  a greater  amount  of  material  in  their  nests  to 
keep  them  warm.  So  when  one  of  them  gets  afire  the  boards  under  them 
are  sure  to  be  lighted.  In  cities,  every  spring,  all  sparrows’  nests  about 
buildings  should  be  found  and  torn  down.  If  there  are  eggs  in  them  to 
break  so  much  the  better.  The  house  sparrow  — or  English  sparrow, 
as  it  is  commonly  called,  is  of  no  known  use  and  it  drives  away  the  song 
birds  which,  besides  the  pleasure  they  give  us  by  their  music,  are  of 
great  value  to  the  farmer,  because  they  live  by  eating  the  insects  which 
destroy  grain,  fruit  and  vegetables. 


26 


DANGERS  AND  CHEMISTRY  OF  FIRE 


BURNING  RUBBISH. 

Sparks  start  a few  fires  in  rubbish,  leaves  and  dead  grass  and  many 
buildings  are  destroyed  by  sparks  from  burning  piles  of  rubbish,  to  get 
rid  of  them,  at  the  time  of  spring  house-cleaning.  The  best  plan  is  not 
to  have  any  spring  house-cleaning.  Keep  the  house  clean  all  the  year 
round. 

A spark  may  be  hot  enough  to  explode  gasoline  vapor  or  acetylene 
gas.  Any  spark  will  light  thin  paper,  rags,  cotton,  grease,  tar  or  lace 
curtains.  More  fires  are  started  in  rubbish  heaps  by  sparks  than  by  care- 
lessness with  matches  or  cigar  stubs.  Do  not  allow  rubbish  heaps  to 
collect.  They  are  never  necessary. 

PLAYING  WITH  FIRE. 

In  the  autumn  there  are  fires  started  by  sparks  from  burning  piles 
of  leaves  in  city  streets.  Leaves  should  be  hauled  away.  Burning  them 
on  the  street  injures  the  pavement,  frightens  horses  and  sometimes  sets 
fire  to  the  clothing  of  children. 

For  a child  to  make  a bonfire  of  a pile  of  any  kind  of  rubbish  is 
always  dangerous  because  sparks  from  it  may  set  fire  to  houses  or  stables 
near  by.  It  is  dangerous  to  the  child,  too,  for  his  clothes  are  likely  to 
get  afire  while  playing  about  a bonfire  for  he  likes  to  poke  it  and  jump 
over  it. 

In  a newspaper  is  this  story  of  a little  girl : “The  child,  together 
with  a group  of  friends,  was-  playing  about  the  bonfire  when  her  clothes 
caught  fire  and  she  was  completely  covered  by  a mass  of  flames.  Her 
screams  brought  her  mother,  who  ran  to  her  aid  and  succeeded  in  putting 
out  the  flames,  but  not  until  the  child’s  body  was  terribly  burned  from 
head  to  foot.  She  was  hurried  to  the  hospital,  where  she  suffered  until 
death  came  in  the  evening.” 

If  girls  play  near  open  grates  their  skirts  or  aprons  are  likely  to  be 
drawn  to  the  fire  and  lighted.  While  playing  “little  old  woman,”  a 
Springfield  girl  of  six  got  upon  a chair  to  reach  a penny  on  the  mantel. 
The  long  apron  she  wore  was  drawn  into  the  fire.  Before  she  could  get 
down  from  the  chair  her  clothes  were  flaming.  A lady  hearing  her 
screams  came  and  quickly  wrapped  a rug  around  her.  But  it  was  too 
late,  the  burns  were  so  deep  that  she  soon  died. 

Playing  with  powder  or  kerosene  is  very  dangerous.  A boy  found 
a shell  made  for  use  in  a shotgun,  opened  it  and  put  the  powder  it  held 
into  a bottle.  To  see  it  explode,  he  dropped  a lighted  match  into  it,  and 
his  face  was  badly  burned. 

Children  who  play  with  fire  nearly  always  burn  their  homes  or  them- 
selves. 


DANGERS  AND  CHEMISTRY  OF  FIRE 


27 


Locomotive  sparks  fire  many  buildings  in  cities  where  there  is  great 
danger  of  a conflagration.  The  fire  losses  that  railway  companies  are 
forced  to  pay  on  account  of  sparks  are  very  large.  The  inventor  of  a 
good  spark  arrester  for  locomotives  will  be  made  rich.  The  sparks 
are  thrown  out  when  the  engine  coughs  “choo,  choo.” 


LESSON  NO.  12. 

Dangers  from  Leaking  Gas. 

HOW  IT  MAY  BE  EXPLODED. 

If  a boy  who  smells  gas  in  the  cellar  looks  for  the  leak  in  a gas  pipe 
with  a lighted  match  or  a lamp  or  candle  he  is  sure  to  find  it.  After- 
ward other  persons  will  find  him  dead  from  the  explosion  caused  by  the 
flame  from  the  light  he  used. 

When  a flame  touches  a mass  of  gas  it  burns  so  quickly  that  it  makes 
a great  heat.  The  sudden  forming  of  a great  quantity  of  gas  forces  the 
walls  of  the  house  apart.  It  is  this  sudden  swelling  of  the  gases  in 
powder  which  drives  the  bullet  from  a gun.  The  noise  is  made  by  the 
movement  of  the  gas  throwing  the  air  into  waves.  Very  quick  burning 
makes  what  we  call  “explosion.” 

When  a smell  of  gas  is  noticed  anywhere  in  the  house,  doors  and 
windows  should  be  thrown  open  and  all  gas  keys  closed.  The  leak 
should  then  be  hunted  with  nose  and  fingers  — never  with  a light.  The 
gas  usually  comes  through  a leak-hole  with  force  enough  to  be  felt.  It 
is  likely  to  be  where  two  ends  of  pipe  come  together;  at  an  opening  in 
the  seam  of  the  pipe  or  at  a sand  hole  in  a cast  iron  elbow. 

If  there  is  fire  in  a stove  or  a lighted  jet  in  a room  next  the  one  in 
which  gas  is  noticed,  do  not  open  the  door  between,  because  the  gas  would 
be  drawn  to  the  fire  in  the  stove  and  exploded. 

THE  NOSE  AS  A POLICEMAN. 

If  the  leak  cannot  be  found  by  using  the  nose  as  a gas  policeman,  a 
plumber  must  be  called  to  shut  off  the  gas  outside  the  house.  A small 
hole  may  be  plugged  for  a little  while  with  a splinter  of  soft  wood.  A 
crack  may  be  stopped  by  wrapping  with  a bandage  smeared  with  soap. 
If  a hole  is  so  small  it  can’t  be  found  with  the  fingers,  wet  the  pipe  with 
soapsuds,  then  the  leak  will  blow  a bubble  for  you. 

With  doors  and  windows  open  a small  leak  will  do  no  harm  if  there 
is  no  flame  the  gas  can  reach.  Air  holding  less  than  one-twentieth  part 
of  gas  will  not  burn.  A mixture  of  one-twelfth  part  of  gas  and  eleven- 
twelfths  air  will  explode  if  it  touches  a blaze. 


2 8 


DANGERS  AND  CHEMISTRY  OF  FIRE 


Every  one  should  be  afraid  of  all  kinds  of  gases  used  for  making 
light  or  for  cooking,  for  they  are  always  trying  to  get  out  of  the  pipes. 
If  gas  does  find  an  opening  it  is  likely  to  smother  people  to  death  while 
they  sleep  and  on  reaching  a blaze,  take  fire  and  burn  up  their  bodies. 

A DANGEROUS  ENEMY. 

It  is  bad  enough  to  have  in  our  homes  such  an  enemy  to  life  as 
natural  gas  or  coal  gas  when  held  in  iron  pipes.  To  have  it  in  rubber 
tubes,  such  as  are  often  used  to  carry  it  to  stoves  or  hot  plates,  is  much 
worse.  Such  a tube  may  crack  off  at  the  end.  If  it  does  so  while  the 
gas  stove  is  burning,  the  fir'e  goes  out,  but  if  the  stove  burner  is  very 
hot  the  escaping  gas  will  be  lighted  at  the  end  which  has  dropped  to  the 
floor.  They  may  be  pulled  off  in  moving  the  stove  or  be  knocked  off  in 
many  ways. 

A mother,  after  being  out  of  the  room  for  a few  minutes,  returned 
and  found  her  little  girl  lying  smothered  by  gas  from  one  of  these  tubes, 
which  had  pulled  off  while  the  child  was  playing  with  it. 

COMMON  ACCIDENTS. 

Many  accidents  come  from  the  keys  in  gas  pipes  near  stoves  being 
turned  and.  left  open  after  the  flame  has  been  extinguished. 

A woman  in  a room  in  which  there  was  no  fire  or  light  caught  her 
skirt  on  a key,  shook  it  off,  and  passed  out  without  seeing  that  the  key 
had  been  turned  open.  The  escaping  gas  reached  a burning  gas  fire  in 
an  adjoining  room  and  exploded,  blowing  out  a wall  of  the  house. 

Children  at  play  open  these  keys,  men  kick  them,  and  housewives 
turn  them  open  by  dragging  the  dishrag  over  them,  or  by  hitting  them 
with  crockery  and  by  striking  them  with  the  broom  while  sweeping. 

In  new  houses,  the  pipes  are  under  the  floor  and  there  is  a key-hole. 
This  makes  the  danger  less  if  the  key  is  not  left  in  the  hole,  but  it  often 
is.  The  key  should  be  hung  on  a nail  above  the  hole. 

A gaslight  bracket  should  not  be  used  to  hang  things  on  because  the 
key  may  be  caught  and  turned  open  in  removing  them. 

A WORSE  DANGER. 

The  worst  danger  in  cel’ars  is  from  gas  which  has  leaked  from  the 
main  pipes  under  the  street.  This  gas  cannot  get  up  through  the  pave- 
ment, so  it  sometimes  comes  into  the  cellar  through  the  loose  earth  around 
the  pipe  which  runs  into  the  house.  It  is  most  dangerous  because  it  has 
no  smell.  The  earth  through  which  it  has  passed  has  taken  from  it  the 
oils  which  give  it  the  smell  which  warns  one  that  it  is  there.  Being  lighter 
than  air  it  floats  next  the  cellar  ceiling. 


DANGERS  AND  CHEMISTRY  OF  FIRE 


29 


One-sixth  of  all  the  gas  put  into  the  main  pipes  is  lost  by  leaking. 
The  cost  to  the  gas  company  for  digging  down  and  fixing  small  leaks  in 
the  street  pipes  would  be  more  than  the  gas  lost  is  worth. 


LESSON  NO.  13. 

Gas  Lights. 

SMOTHERED  BY  GAS. 

Two  kinds  of  gases  are  used  for  light.  Water  gas  is  made  by 
carbonizing  soft  coal  in  iron  retorts  by  forcing  steam  through  it  and 
adding  petroleum  drop  by  drop.  In  Ohio,  and  seven  other  states  where 
natural  gas  can  be  had,  it  is  used  for  light  in  mantel  burners.  It  costs 
one-half  as  much  as  the  other  kind  of  gas,  so  it  is  cheap  enough  to  use 
for  warming  and  cooking. 

COAL  GAS. 

When  coal  is  roasted  in  an  oven,  coke,  tar,  ammonia  liquor  and 
lighting  gases  come  out  of  it.  These  gases  are  passed  from  the  oven 
through  holes  in  the  bottom  of  a large  iron  pipe  which  lies  on  the  ground. 
This  pipe  is  half  filled  with  water,  in  which  most  of  the  tar  and  ammonia 
settle.  The  gases  are  then  passed  through  a number  of  tall  iron  pipes 
to  cool  them.  Then  they  go  up  through  a tower  filled  with  coke,  down 
which  water  trickles.  This  is  the  ‘scrubber”  in  which  the  rest  of  the 
ammonia  and  other  gases  are  taken  out.  It  then  goes  into  the  large  gas 
holder  which  presses  it  into  the  street  pipes. 

Analine  dyes,  which  are  used  for  coloring  Easter  eggs,  are  made 
from  the  tar  from  the  gas  factory.  Coal  gas  is  used  in  less  than  one- 
quarter  of  the  towns  in  this  state. 

Natural  gas  comes  from  very  deep  wells  just  as  the  petroleum  does 
from  which  coal  oil  is  made.  Ohio  uses  more  natural  gas  than  any  other 
.state,  but  half  of  it  comes  from  West  Virginia.  In  three  of  every  four 
homes  it  is  used  for  warmth,  cooking  and  lighting. 

About  60  houses  are  burned  each  year  in  Ohio  by  gas  jets  which  have 
a hinge  in  them  so  they  can  be  moved  from  side  to  side.  There  are 
about  twenty-five  fires  a year  from  window  curtains  being  blown  into 
gas  lights. 

Gas  jets  that  will  swing  are  dangerous  anywhere  in  the  house,  unless 
they  have  glass  globes  or  wire  cages  around  the  light,  because  they  may 
be  turned  against  the  wall  and  in  many  places  against  furniture.  The 
most  dangerous  ones  are  those  of  the  double  jointed  sort  used  when 
turned  one  way  to  light  the  door  to  the  cellar  furnace,  and  when  turned 
the  other  way  to  light  the  coal  bin. 


30 


DANGERS  AND  CHEMISTRY  OF  FIRE 


The  flame  of  a gas  jet  will  first  char  the  wood  which  is  too  close  to  it 
and  then  light  the  charcoal  it  has  made.  No  gas  jet  should  be  less  than 
two  and  a half  feet  from  the  ceiling. 

don't  blow  out  gas. 

The  match  for  lighting  a gas  jet  or  stove  should  be  lighted  and  held 
in  the  hand  before  the  gas  is  turned  on.  Mrs.  Baker,  of  Shelby,  turned 
on  the  gas  and  waited  too  long  before  applying  the  match.  An  explosion 
set  fire  to  her  clothing.  She  ran  out  of  the  house  and  fell,  dying. 

When  one  gas  jet  is  left  open  without  being  lighted  the  unburned 
gas  fills  the  room  and  smothers  those  who  are  in  it,  if  the  doors  or  win- 
dows are  not  open.  This  is  because  gas  when  breathed  keeps  the  blood 
from  getting  the  oxygen  of  the  air  through  the  lungs.  Many  persons  who 
did  not  know  how  to  turn  off  a gas  light  have  blown  one  out  and  gone 
to  sleep  never  to  awaken. 

Flame  changes  gas  to  carbonic  acid  and  water.  If  the  stove  is  an 
open  one,  as  most  gas  stoves  are,  the  water  comes  out  into  the  room  as 
steam,  which  is  so  thin  it  can’t  be  seen.  In  cold  weather  it  freezes  on 
the  window  panes.  It  swells  the  wood  in  the  furniture  so  the  glue  cracks 
in  its  joints.  This  steam  in  the  air  makes  one  feel  warmer  than  he 
would  if  the  air  were  dry.  A room  heated  by  an  open  natural  gas 
stove  need  not  be  kept  so  hot  as  one  heated  by  a closed  wood  or  coal 
stove. 

THE  NATURAL  GAS  STOVE. 

The  common  natural  gas  heating  stove  with  no  pipe  to  carry  the 
fumes  of  the  burning  gas  to  a chimney  is  dangerous  to  life.  The  fumes 
from  it  cannot  be  seen  because  there  is  no  soot  in  it.  It  has  in  it  car- 
bonic acid  which  is  the  poison  always  found  in  smoke.  If  too  much  gas 
is  let  into  the  stove,  or  if  it  gets  red  hot,  carbon  monoxide  is  formed. 
The  person  who  breathes  air  in  which  there  is  one-hundredth  part  of 
this  gas,  dies.  When  breathed  it  fills  the  red  cells  of  the  blood  so  that 
they  cannot  carry  oxygen  through  the  body.  In  a few  minutes  every 
cell  in  the  body  is  poisoned.  Death  comes  quickly.  The  fumes  from 
burning  charcoal  kill  in  the  same  way. 

Persons  choked  from  the  fumes  from  burnt  gas  cannot  be  made  to 
breathe  again. 

More  lives  and  houses  are  destroyed  by  cooking  stoves  than  by  heat- 
ing stoves.  The  common  causes  of  explosion  in  them  are,  turning  open 
two  burners  and  lighting  but  one;  or,  one  burner  being  blown  out  by 
wind  or  by  children  playing  with  the  knobs  which  open  them  letting  gas 
leak  into  the  oven. 

The  fumes  from  natural  gas  stoves  cause  the  mortar  between  the 
bricks  in  the  chimneys  to  crumble  and  fall  out.  The  little  pieces  often 
fall  till  they  choke  the  small  pipe  from  the  gas  stove.  Then  the  fumes 
may  smother  persons  sleeping  in  the  room. 


DANGERS  AND  CHEMISTRY  OF  FIRE 


31 


THE  GREAT  WASTE  OF  FUEL. 

Half  of  all  the  natural  gas  paid  for  is  wasted  by  carelessness  in 
burning  it  and  by  badly  made  stoves. 

To  use  all  the  heat  in  the  gas  the  stove  must  have  skeleton  lids  to 
let  in  air  and  the  bottom  of  the  skillet  or  pot  in  which  food  is  to  be 
cooked  must  be  but  an  inch  and  a quarter  above  the  burner. 

This  is  true  of  the  hot-plate,  too. 

The  tips  of  the  flames  from  the  burners  should  just  reach  the  skillets. 

If  the  flame  is  yellow,  gas  is  being  wasted  because  it  is  not  given  air 
enough  to  burn  all  of  it.  Then  the  mixer  should  be  cleaned  and  the  air 
slides  moved  until  the  flame  turns  blue. 

Burning  gas  in  a coal  furnace  wastes  most  of  it. 

The  gas  logs  in  fire  places  waste  three-fourths  of  the  fuel  and  so  do 
heaters  with  asbestos  backs.  Only  one-fourth  of  the  heat  comes  out  into 
the  room. 

Any  of  the  many  kinds  of  “radiant”  stoves  having  fireclay  mantles 
and  back-walls  use  all  the  gas  that  comes  to  them  and  burn  the  fumes. 

When  gas  pressure  in  winter  is  too  low  to  heat  the  oven,  bread  can 
be  baked  and  the  turkey  roasted  in  a small  oven  put  over  the  top  burner 
of  the  common  gas  stove. 

Many  persons  waste  gas  by  letting  it  burn  under  water  heaters  all 
night. 

DYING  FROM  GAS. 

If  you  find  a person  so  sound  asleep  that  he  cannot  be  awakened,  in 
a room  in  which  there  is  a strong  smell  of  gas,  throw  open  the  doors  and 
windows  and  call  for  help.  While  waiting  for  the  doctor  you  should 
try  to  get  fresh  air  into  his  lungs. 

To  do  this  put  him  on  the  floor.  Hold  his  tongue  out  by  fingers  with 
a handkerchief  over  them.  This  is  to  keep  the  throat  open  so  air  can 
go  in.  Another  person  should  kneel  over  his  head  and  catch  the  arms 
above  the  wrists  pulling  them  along  the  floor  away  from  the  body  and 
up  along  side  of  the  head.  After  a moment  the  arms  should  be  brought 
together  and  moved  down  until  the  elbows,  almost  together,  can  be  pressed 
on  the  stomach.  This  squeezes  out  the  gas  or  air  which  is  in  the  lungs. 
This  should  be  done  seven  times  each  minute.  That  is  as  fast  as  a healthy 
person  breathes. 

By  these  movements  many  lives  of  those  poisoned  by  gas,  or  drowned, 
or  stunned  by  lightning  or  the  electricity  from  light  and  trolley  wires 
are  saved. 

NOTE.  — A teacher  by  having  two  boys  demonstrate  this  method  upon  another  can 
impress  a lesson  that  may  save  a number  of  lives.  The  boys  will  be  most  interested  in 
its  use  to  bring  to  life  persons  who  have  been  drowned. 


3^ 


Dangers  and  chemistry  of  fire 


LESSON  NO.  14. 

The  Dangers  from  Christmas  Trees. 

IN  HOMES  AND  CHURCHES. 

The  common  Christmas  tree  when  finished  is  a giant  torch.  The  tree 
itself  is  always  an  evergreen  whose  twigs  are  full  of  rosin.  On  it  are  put 
festoons  and  wreaths  of  dry  leaves  or  tissue  paper  which  will  burn  with 
a flash.  Many  of  the  presents  are  made  from  celluloid  which  burns 
rapidly.  Others  are  covered  with  lace  or  embroidery  which  may  be 
lighted  by  a spark.  The  Christmas  bells  of  paper,  the  netting  from 
which  candy  bags  are  made  and  the  dry  painted  wood  in  toys  burn  easily. 

In  this  collection  of  things  which  take  fire  easily  are  placed  a number 
of  candles  feebly  attached  to  light  branches  which  can  be  moved  by  the 
slightest  touch  or  swayed  by  a current  of  air.  What  a temptation  it  is 
to  the  fire  fiend. 

While  the  candles  are  lighted  no  finishing  touches  should  be  made. 
Doors  should  remain  closed  because  of  the  danger  from  draughts  sway- 
ing the  branches  or  blowing  lace  curtains  against  the  tree.  To  leave  the 
tree  alone  when  lighted  is  dangerous. 

BLOW  OUT  THE  CANDLES. 

When  you  are  done  admiring  the  dazzling  beauty  of  the  tree  and  it 
is  time  to  take  ofif  the  presents,  the  candles  should  be  blown  out.  It 
is  very  hard  to  remove  the  presents  from  the  slender  limbs  of  the  tree 
without  brushing  one  of  the  many  candles  against  something  which  will 
take  fire.  Anyway,  you  don’t  care  much  whether  the  tree  is  lighted  or 
not  while  you  are  watching  to  see  which  of  the  many  presents  are  for  you. 

The  most  dangerous  common  practice  is  that  of  placing  cotton  under 
the  tree,  to  look  like  snow.  The  cotton  is  liable  to  be  set  afire  by  falling 
candles  or  sparks  from  them  or  from  matches  used  in  lighting  the  can- 
dles. All  of  the  vegetable  fibers  like  cotton  are  hollow  tubes,  so  they 
have  in  them  air,  which  makes  them  burn  at  once  inside  as  well  as  out. 
Asbestos  fibre  looks  like  snow  and  it  cannot  take  fire. 

A tree  may  now  be  decorated  beautifully  indeed  at  little  cost  and 
with  greatly  lessened  fire  danger,  for  there  is  in.  the  stores  a number  of 
cheap,  bright  balls  and  artificial  evergreens  for  the  purpose,  which  will 
not  burn.  The  Japanese  tissue  paper  now  made  in  Massachusetts  is  very 
beautiful  for  decorations.  It  will  not  take  fire,  even  from  a candle  flame, 
but  will  turn  to  ashes  without  blazing. 

The  floor  under  the  tree  may  be  protected  by  a piece  of  zinc  or  iron. 
A Christmas  tree  can  be  made  less  dangerous  and  more  beautiful  if  the 
presents  are  put  under  it  instead  of  on  it. 


DANGERS  AND  CHEMISTRY  OF  FIRE 


.33 


A string  of  nine  electric  lights  for  use  in  trees  costs  less  than  $5. 

In  the  Northern  states  one  family  in  fourteen  has  a Christmas  tree. 
Nearly  all  of  them  are  spruce  from  the  wild  parts  of  Maine,  Northern 
New  York  or  Canada.  When  shipped  here  they  have  their  limbs  tied 
up  so  they  can  be  packed  600  in  a car. 

TREES  IN  CHURCHES. 

The  danger  to  life  from  the  Sunday  school  tree  is  much  greater  than 
from  the  home  tree  because  there  are  more  managers  working  around 
it.  Many  kind  gentlemen,  make-believe  Santas,  dressed  largely  in  cotton 
batting  while  giving  out  the  goods  and  goodies,  have  burned  to  death 
by  the  cotton  getting  afire.  Many  children  have  been  killed  by  fire  or 
trampled  to  death  in  the  panic  following  a blaze  in  a Christmas  tree. 

Mineral  wool  should  be  used  in  trimming  Santa  Claus.  Cotton  is 
much  too  dangerous. 

CHRISTMAS  TREE  DONATS. 

One  Christmas  twelve  Ohio  homes  were  burned  by  wax  candles  firing 
Christmas  trees.  The  facts  from  those  accidents  show  the  need  of  giving 
heed  to  the  advice  to  parents  in  the  “don’ts”  which  follow : 

Don’t  let  children  touch  the  tree. 

Don’t  use  festoons  of  tissue  paper  or  cotton  batting  on  a tree. 

Don’t  use  ornaments  made  of  celluloid. 

Don’t  light  a single  candle  until  everything  is  ready  for  the  children 
to  come  in. 

Don’t  permit  a draft  of  air  to  sway  the  branches,  of  a tree  while  the 
candles  are  lighted. 

Don’t  let  Uncle  Henry  shift  the  position  of  the  doll  for  Jennie,  to 
make  it  show  better,  because  he  is  likely  to  sway  a candle  against  some- 
thing which  will  take  fire. 

Don’t  leave  a lighted  tree  unwatched. 

Don’t  put  cotton  beneath  the  tree  to  make  the  carpet  look  like  snow- 
covered  ground. 

Don’t  fail  to  have  a bucket  of  water  near  the  tree. 

Don’t  remove  a thing  from  the  tree  until  the  candles  on  it  are 
blown  out. 

Don’t  let  the  tree  stand  long  after  Christmas,  for  when  dry  it  is 
doubly  dangerous. 

What  could  be  sadder  than  the  marring  of  this  joyous  and  sacred 
time  by  the  burning  of  homes  and  loved  ones  through  carelessness? 


34 


DANGERS  AND  CHEMISTRY  OF  FIRE 


LESSON  NO.  15. 

Fighting  Fire  in  the  Home. 

HOW  WATER  PUTS  OUT  A BLAZE. 

What  should  be  feared  more  than  the  burning  of  the  home?  There 
is  danger  that  the  lives  of  loved  ones  or  our  own  will  be  lost;  danger 
of  loss  of  all  the  building  cost;  danger  of  loss  of  pictures  and  gifts  of 
absent,  dead  or  dear  ones,  and  other  precious  things  that  money  could 
not  get  again.  But  in  a few  houses,  very  few,  is  there  anything  at  hand 
with  which  to  put  out  a starting  fire,  which  would  make  ashes  of  these 
household  treasures  and  of  the  home  as  well. 

The  first  thing  to  get  is  a ladder  so  one  can  quickly  carry  water  up 
to  put  upon  a fire  started  in  the  shingles  of  the  roof  by  sparks.  A lad- 
der is  needed  at  the  country  school  house,  too,  for  nearly  all  fires  in 

these  houses  start  in  the  roof  or  in  the  attic  and  a ladder  must  be  used 
to  get  into  the  attic  with  water.  A ladder  is  often  needed  to  save  the 
lives  of  persons  in  the  upper  stories  of  burning  buildings.  In  a dwelling 
the  fire  soon  fills  the  stairway  with  smoke  or  flame  so  one  cannot  get 

out  that  way.  A ladder  can  be  made  in  a day,  or  bought  ready  made 

for  a few  dollars. 

FIGHTING  FIRE. 

The  farmer  cannot  call  a fire  department. 

In  a farm  house  kitchen  there  should  always  be  a bucket  kept  full 
of  water  ready  for  use  to  put  out  a starting  fire.  The  bucket  used  for 
water  for  cooking  or  drinking  is  full  but  half  the  time,  and  may  be 
empty  at  the  wrong  time.  Buckets  for  holding  water  for  use  in  case  of 
fire,  are  made  with  round  bottoms  and  held  by  a shelf  with  a hole  in  it 
or  hung  on  a nail.  One  could  not  use  a bucket  that  would  not  stand 
alone,  for  scrubbing,  or  any  other  house  work,  so  such  buckets  remain 
full.  In  winter  salt  is  put  into  the  water  in  a fire  bucket  so  it  cannot 
freeze. 

To  stop  a starting  fire  the  water  can  be  sprinkled  with  a broom  or 
thrown  with  a tin  cup. 

The  water  must  be  thrown  upon  the  hot  coals  below  the  blaze;  not  at 
the  blaze. 

If  a farmer  has  a machine  for  spraying  fruit  trees  it  can  have  a 
nozzle  with  a single  hole  which  will  throw  a solid  stream  that  can  be 
used  upon  a burning  roof  or  elsewhere. 

EXTINGUISHERS  TO  USE  BY  HAND 

The  time  to  win  a fight  with  a fire  easily  is  when  it  is  starting.  The 
most  effective  help  is  one  of  the  little  chemical  fire  engines  which 


DANGERS  AND  CHEMISTRY  OF  FIRE 


35 


hold  a few  pints  of  tetrachloride  of  carbon.  When  thrown  from  the 
nozzle  this  fluid  makes  a gas  which  smothers  flame  like  a blanket.  A 
boy  or  girl  can  put  out  a starting  fire  in  a minute  with  one  of  them. 

One  of  these  engines,  which  looks  like  a squirt  gun,  is  one  means  of 
putting  out  many  fires  in  a home.  This  gas  will  smother  a fire  in  places 
to  which  water  can’t  be  thrown  or  will  put  out  oil  fires  that  water  can  not. 

You  may  have  seen  in  factories  or  hotels  cans  marked  “For  Fire” 
which  hold  two  bucketfuls  and  which  have  at  one  end  a piece  of  hose  a 
yard  long. 

From  one  of  the  carbonic  acid  gas  fire  extinguishers  water  is  thrown 
by  the  force  of  carbonic  acid  gas  made  in  the  can  when  it  is  turned 
upside  down  ready  for  use.  When  one  of  these  cans  is  turned  over 
sulphuric  acid  is  spilled  from  a bottle  in  its  top  into  a solution  of  baking 
soda.  When  they  get  together,  carbonic  acid  gas  is  formed  which 
presses  so  hard  that  the  water  and  gas  in  the  can  may  be  thrown 
through  the  hose  to  the  top  of  a three-story  house.  Three  gallons  of 
soda  water  of  this  kind  are  very  effective  on  fires  starting  in  the  home. 
Firemen  use  both  kinds. 

Firemen  think  little  of  the  bottles  called  “Hand  Grenades”  which 
are  seen  in  racks  or  the  pretty  hanging  tubes  marked  “Dry  powder  ex- 
tinguisher.” These  are  of  very  little  value  and  trying  to  use  them  may 
cause  the  waste  of  valuable  time. 


LESSON  NO.  16. 

Fire  Dangers  from  Grease  and  Oil. 

A FIRE  MAY  START  ITSELF. 

Spontaneous  combustion  is  the  lighting  of  anything  from  heat 
caused  by  chemical  action  within  itself,  but  the  word  is  often  used  in 
speaking  of  any  burning  which  happens  without  the  touch  of  a flame, 
spark  or  live  coal. 

Spontaneous  combustion  is  the  only  great  fire  danger  about  which 
whole  books  have  been  written,  but  few  people  know  about  it.  Fires 
from  this  cause  usually  are  spoken  of  in  the  newspapers  as  “probably 
incendiary”  or  of  “mysterious  origin.”  What  is  known  of  spontaneous 
combustion,  aside  from  that  gained  in  chemical  laboratories,  comes  almost 
entirely  from  fires  which  are  seen  when  they  are  starting.  They  soon 
burn  up  the  stuff  which  causes  them  and  then  no  one  can  tell  how  the 
fire  started. 

The  common  number  of  fires  a year  from  spontaneous  combustion 
in  Ohio  is  160.  Of  these  more  than  half  are  from  grease  on  rags. 

In  the  United  States  it  stands  fifth  as  a cause  of  loss  by  fire. 


36 


DANGERS  AND  CHEMISTRY  OF  FIRE 


THE  CHEMISTRY  OF  COMBUSTION. 

Spontaneous  combustion  is  not  hard  to  understand  if  one  knows 
how  a fire  burns.  Burning  is  the  same  process  in  the  rotting  log,  blazing 
shaving  and  exploding  dynamite,  the  only  difference  being  in  the  time 
taken  for  the  oxygen  of  the  air  to  unite  with  the  carbon  in  them. 
If  they  unite  slowly,  as  in  the  rotting  of  wood  or  the  rusting  of  iron  or 
decaying  potato,  the  heat  is  borne  away  unnoticed  ; if  they  unite  quickly 
enough  to  produce  heat  that  will  roast  out  and  ignite  the  gases, 
it  makes  a flame ; if  so  fast  that  the  swelling  of  the  water,  in  the  form  of 
steam,  and  the  carbon  dioxide  which  are  made  by  all  combustion,  causes 
noise  and  shock,  it  is  an  explosion. 

The  taking  fire  of  any  material  comes  from  its  being  heated  so  hot 
that  the  hydrogen  and  carbon  in  it  begin  to  unite  with  the  oxygen  of 
the  air  to  form  carbonic  acid  gas.  This  gas,  which  is  made  up  of 
water  in  vapor  and  carbon  dioxide,  is  drawn  up  the  flue  of  the  stove  by 
the  current  of  heated  air.  The  carbon  dioxide  being  slightly  heavier  than 
air  falls  to  furnish  breath  for  trees  and  plants,  while  the  water  vapor 
rises  to  form  clouds  and  return  in  rain.  So,  we  get  back  the  product . 
of  the  burning  of  our  houses,  but  after  it  is  greatly  lessened  in  value. 

GREASY  RAGS. 

In  the  last  200  fires  from  spontaneous  combustion  reported  to  the 
state  fire  marshal,,  fats  or  oils  on  cotton  fibers  caused  122.  The  animal  fats, 
tallow,  butter  and  lard  unless  rancid,  are  less  liable  to  cause  spontoneous 
combustion  than  the  fatty  acids,  vegetable  oils,  linseed,  cottonseed,  nut, 
castor  bean  and  olive  oil.  Although  the  greases  made  from  petroleum 
cannot  take  up  oxygen  and  start  burning,  they  are  mixed  with  dangerous 
greases  for  use  in  automobiles.  None  of  these  can  take  fire  spontaneously 
unless  spread  over  a large  surface  of  easily  lighted  material,  as  when  a 
cotton  rag  is  wet  with  them.  Then  they  take  oxygen  from  the  air  so  fast 
that  the  heat  from  their  getting  together  will,  if  it  is  not  carried  away  by 
movement  of  air,  rise  to  a point  at  which  the  threads  of  the  rag  will  first 
char  and  then  take  fire.  An  instance:  A mop  used  in  oiling  a floor  in 
the  Home  for  Working  Girls  in  Columbus  took  fire  in  a few  hours  after 
being  put  in  a closet  under  the  stairs.  Lime  will  start  a fire  if  water  gets 
to  it  and  fire  may  start  in  iron  filings  and  the  dust  of  other  metals. 

Linseed  oil  is  chargeable  with  the  greatest  number  of  fires  from 
spontaneous  combustion.  Cotton  rags,  sawdust  or  scraps  of  silk  wet  with 
olive  or  cottonseed  oil,  will  take  fire.  These  oils  are  likely  to  get  into 
any  pile  of  rubbish. 


DANGERS  AND  CHEMISTRY  OF  FIRE 


37 


CLOSET  FIRES. 

Many  fires  start  in  closets  from  ragbags,  greasy  overalls,  and  from 
cloths  or  mops  used  in  oiling  the  floor.  Seven  fires  from  the  ignition  of 
greasy  clothing  in  closets  have  happened  in  Ohio  within  two  years.  These 
fires  would  have  burned  down  the  houses  and  been  reported  as  of  un- 
known origin  had  not  some  one  been  near  to  notice  the  smoke.  Many 
heavy  losses  on  factories  come  from  fires  started  by  paint  dryers,  tur- 
pentine and  linseed  oil  getting  on  rags  or  waste. 

Lard,  tallow  and  butter  smeared  on  rags  and  thrown  into  a trash 
barrel  are  a source  of  danger.  The  storehouses  in  which  rags  are 
picked  and  baled  are  very  likely  to  be  destroyed  by  spontaneous  com- 
bustion. 

Kerosene  and  gasoline  do  not  dry  by  uniting  with  oxygen,  therefore 
they  do  not  cause  spontaneous  combustion. 

A large  number  of  substances  that  are  not  greasy  are  liable  to 
become  hot  and  take  fire  without  being  near  a stove  or  flame. 

Many  barns  are  burned  by  new  mown  hay  becoming  hot  and  taking 
fire.  A few  are  burned  by  the  heating  of  shredded  fodder,  grain  and 
meal. 

Ice  houses  are  very  liable  to  take  fire  from  heating  of  the  sawdust  or 
tan-bark  in  which  the  ice  is  packed,  or  used  to  fill  the  walls.  Per- 
haps the  grease  from  the  mill  machinery  getting  into  the  sawdust  causes 
some  of  these  fires.  Strange  as  it  may  seem,  materials  are  most  likely 
to  burn  themselves  when  damp. 

Not  long  ago  a man  who  had  been  doing  some  painting  around  his 
home  hung  his  oily  overalls  in  a warm  closet  and  went  to  bed.  He  was 
fortunate  in  having  a dog  that  slept  lightly,  for  when  spontaneous  com- 
bustion lighted  the  overalls,  and  then  the  closed  door,  it  was  the  barking 
of  his  dog  that  aroused  the  man  in  time  to  save  himself  and  his  family. 
The  fire  did  $2,000  worth  of  damage. 


LESSON  NO.  17 

What  To  Do 

IF  IN  A BURNING  BUILDING 

When  you  see  a fire  starting  in  the  house,  keep  cool ! If  you  have 
made  up  your  mind  beforehand  just  what  you  should  do,  if  the  house 
gets  afire,  you  may  keep  cool  enough  to  do  it.  It  is  well  worth  thinking 
about. 


3» 


DANGERS  AND  CHEMISTRY  OF  FIRE. 


If  the  blaze  is  just  starting,  throw  water  on  the  material  that  is 
burning — not  at  the  blaze.  One  bucket  of  water  will  do  more  good  if 
thrown  on  by  handfuls  or  with  a broom  than  if  dashed  on  at  once. 

A small  fire  may  be  smothered  with  a rug  or  blanket,  or  beaten 
out  with  a wet  broom. 

If  you  cannot  put  out  the  starting  fire  in  a minute,  yell  fire  and 
then,  if  in  a city,  call  the  fire  department.  Every  one  living  in  the 
house  should . know  the  telephone  number  to  be  used  for  calling  the 
firemen,  and  it  should  be  kept  in  sight  on  the  wall  near  the  telephone. 
In  case  of  fire  there  is  no  time  for  looking  in  the  directory,  even  if  one 
should  not  be  too  nervous  to  find  the  number.  Every  one  should  know 
where  the  nearest  fire  alarm  box  is  and  how  to  use  it. 

Do  not  leave  a door  open  when  you  run  out  to  give  an  alarm. 

If  the  doors  and  windows  are  closed  when  a fire  starts  one  can  almost 

always  get  the  firemen  there  in  time  to  put  it  out  while  it  is  in  only  one 
room.  The  fire  soon  uses  all  the  oxygen  in  a closed  room  and  may  die 
out  if  it  gets  no  fresh  air. 

TURNING  IN  AN  ALARM 

The  fire  alarm  box  in  the  street  is  quicker  and  surer  than  the 
telephone.  In  using  it  the  box  number  is  telegraphed  to  the  engine 
house  and  the  firemen  know,  from  the  number,  just  where  the  call 
comes  from  and  get  their  engines  and  ladders  to  it  quickly. 

Nearly  all  fire  alarms  are  worked  by  a hook  which  is  seen  just 
inside  the  box  door.  To  turn  in  an  alarm  one  must  pull  the  hook  down 
as  far  as  he  can  and  then  let  go.  That  is  all.  This  makes  a gong  at 

the  engine  house  sound  the  box  number  four  times,  so  the  firemen  may  be 

sure  of  the  count. 

Before  pulling  the  hook  in  this  kind  of  a box  one  must  open  the 
door.  In  nearly  all  fire  alarm  boxes  this  is  done  with  a key.  The 
keys  of  some  boxes  are  kept  in  a building  near  by,  and  there  are 
signs  at  the  box  that  tell  which  building.  In  other  boxes  the  key  can 
be  seen  behind  a piece  of  thin  glass  in  the  door.  One  can  get  it  in  an 
instant  by  breaking  the  glass  with  a stick,  a stone  or  a knife  handle. 
The  glass  falls  out  of  the  way  as  soon  it  is  broken.  Other  alarm 
boxes  send  in  the  alarm  when  the  door  of  the  box  is  opened  by  turn- 
ing a handle  fixed  on  it. 

Note  — After  turning  in  the  alarm,  stay  at  the  box  until  the  firemen  come, 
to  tell  them  where  the  fire  is.  Then  you  may  return  to  the  burning  building  and 
help  to  save  what  you  can  from  it;  but  do  not,  if  you  value  your  life,  try  to  save 
anything  from  an  upper  story  when  the  fire  is  on  a lower  one. 


DANGERS  AND  CHEMISTRY  OF  FIRE. 


39 


WHILE  THE  FIREMEN  ARE  COMING 

After  the  firemen  are  called,  work  at  getting  out  the  things  you 
want  most  to  save.  Don’t  throw  the  clock  or  looking  glass  from  the 
window  and  then  carry  out  a feather  bed  or  your  clothing.  Keep 
cool ! 

If  awakened  in  the  night  by  the  smell  of  fire,  don’t  wait  to  dress, 
but  wrap  yourself  in  a blanket  or  quilt  from  the  bed  and  get  out  of 
the  house  as  quick  as  you  can.  Shut  the  doors  you  pass  through. 
After  calling  help,  look  in  and  see  where  and  what  is  the  danger.  You 
can  then  tell  if  it  is  best  to  try  to  carry  out  the  household  goods.  If 
the  fire  is  on  the  first  floor  it  is  very  dangerous  to  go  above  it  for  any- 
thing, because  the  heat  and  choking  smoke  go  up. 

One  can  often  get  out  through  a hall  filled  with  smoke,  by  going 
on  his  hands  and  knees,  when  he  would  fall  choking  if  he  ran.  The 
smoke  is  thickest  at  the  ceiling.  Holding  a wet  towel,  or  anything 
made  of  flannel,  or  even  a coat  collar,  over  the  mouth,  greatly  lessens 
the  danger  of  injury  to  the  lungs,  or  death  from  breathing  hot  smoke. 

CAUGHT  IN  A BURNING  BUILDING 

Many  fires  start  at  the  first  floor  or  in  the  basement  of  a build- 
ing and  burn  a hole  through  the  roof.  In  a house  the  flames  travel 
by  the  stairway;  in  a big  store  or  hotel  they  go  quickly  up  the  elevator 
shaft.  After  reaching  the  top  the  fire  spreads  and  burns  slowly  down- 
ward, burning  the  wood  that  is  left. 

If  a man  working  in  a big  store  or  factory  sees  a fire  starting 
he  should  at  once  turn  in  the  fire  alarm,  from  the  street  box,  and  also 
from  a box  in  the  building;  then  try  to  put  out  the  fire  with  the  water 
in  any. pail  near  by;  or  by  using  a chemical  extinguisher,  if  there  is  one. 

If  one  finds  himself  in  a burning  building  having  no  fire  escape 
and  the  stair  below  him  burning,  or  the  hall  filled  with  smoke  that 
chokes,  he  should  shut  the  door  and  transom  to  keep  out  the  deadly 
smoke.  Then  he  should  throw  the  window  up  to  get  cool  air  and  with 
his  head  outside  wait  for  the  neighbors  or  firemen  to  get  a ladder 
to  the  window. 

One  should  wait  there  for  help  even  until  he  is  scorched  or  chok- 
ing badly.  By  that  time  the  firemen  will  probably  be  holding  a big  hoop 
covered  with  canvas,  called  a “life  net”  in  which  they  will  catch  him 
when  he  jumps.  Or,  the  neighbors  will  be  holding  a blanket  in  which 
to  catch  him.  If  no  one  is  near,  throw  out  the  bedding,  tick  and  all 
and  jump  on  that.  It  is  safer  to  jump  into  the  branches  of  a tree 
than  to  the  ground. 

More  than  300  persons  are  burned  to  death  every  year  in  Ohio. 


40 


DANGERS  AND  CHEMISTRY  OF  FIRE. 


LESSON  NO.  18. 

First  Aid  to  the  Burned 

AND  INJURED  IN  BURNING  BUILDINGS 

(In  connection  with  this  lesson  the  Fahrenheit  thermometer  should 
be  shown.) 

In  every  year  more  than  six  thousand  people  in  the  United  States 
are  so  severely  burned  as  to  cause  their  death  and  many  times  that  num- 
ber are  badly  burned. 

A burn  of  the  first  degree  hurts  only  the  outside  of  the  skin. 
The  burned  place  is  red,  painfully  hot,  and  tender.  When  it  gets  well 
the  outside  layer  of  skin  peels  off.  This  outside  layer  of  the  skin  is 
made  of  scales  like  those  of  a fish  but  very  much  smaller. 

To  stop  the  pain  from  such  a burn  the  air  must  be  kept  away  from 
it.  Lint  or  cloths  wetted  from  a pint  of  water  into  which  a teaspoon- 
ful of  baking  soda  has  been  stirred,  should  be  put  over  the  burn  and 
held  by  a bandage.  If  there  is  no  soda  use  sweet  oil  or  castor  oil  or  get 
carron  oil  from  a drug  store.  Many  mothers  use  scrapings  from  a 
potato.-  If  a burn  of  this  kind  covers  a large  part  of  the  body  it  is 
dangerous  and  a doctor  should  at  once  be  sent  for.  While  waiting  for 
him  the  burn  should  be  wrapped  in  cotton  cloths  or  gauze  or  covered 
with  flour.  A very  large  burn  which  only  makes  the  skin  red,  with- 
out blistering  it,  may  cause  one  to  sink  and  die  from  shock  and 
pain.  Big  burns  that  are  not  deep,  often  come  from  gas  and  gasoline 
explosions  in  which  the  heat  only  lasts  a moment. 

BLISTERS 

In  burns  of  the  second  degree  there  are  blisters.  Blisters  are 
made  by  water  from  the  blood  being  poured  out  to  cool  the  burn.  The 
skin  over  the  blister  should  not  be  taken  away.  The  clothing  should  be 
taken  off  with  care  not  to  break  any  blisters.  The  skin  over  the  blister 
is  the  best  covering  for  the  raw  spot  under  it  until  the  new  skin 
grows. 

Burns  of  this  kind  should  be  covered  with  soft  rags,  or  cotton 
cloths  or  gauze  dipped  in  carron  oil,  or  with  cloths  smeared  with  tallow. 
Over  the  cloths  a bandage  should  be  put. 

Burns  of  the  third  degree  take  the  life  out  of  all  the  layers  of 
the  skin  and  sometimes  out  of  flesh  under  them.  The  skin  is  made 
hard  like  stiff  paper.  The  dead  skin  and  flesh  is  gotten  rid  of  by 
matter  forming  under  it.  While  these  deep  burns  are  healing,  the  flesh 
under  them  draws  up.  They  always  leave  large  scars.  Any  deep 
burn  should  have  the  care  of  a doctor  quickly.  Until  he  gets  there 


DANGERS  AND  CHEMISTRY  OF  FIRE. 


41 


the  burned  one  should  lie  wrapped  in  a blanket  or  be  put  in  a bath-tub 
filled  with  warm  water.  Many  persons  say  a burn  should  be  held 
near  a flame  “to  draw  the  fire  out  of  it.”  That  is  foolish. 

Most  of  the  deep  burns  are  suffered  by  persons  whose  clothing 
takes  fire.  This  is  because  the  flame  is  kept  against  the  skin  so  long. 
Children  whose  clothes  take  fire  are  usually  burned  to  death. 

scalds. 

Scalds  are  burns  from  very  hot  water.  They  are  not  likely  to 
be  deep  because  the  water  runs  off  right  away.  If  the  fluid  is  thicker 
than  water  the  scald  is  deeper.  Both  burns  and  scalds  on  the  chest 
are  most  dangerous  to  children. 

Water  will  scald  long  before  it  gets  as  hot  as  a flame.  Water 
heated  to  130  degrees  is  as  painful  to  one’s  hand  as  the  blaze  from 
a match  which  is  600  to  1100  degrees.  Passing  a hand  through  a 
blaze  so  hot  gives  little  pain  but  one  would  drop  a pan  heated  to  175 
degrees. 

Tablespoonfuls  of  coffee  or  soup  heated  to  130  degrees  can  be  swal- 
lowed without  hurt,  but  if  the  spoon  touches  the  lips  it  burns  them. 
Although  the  skin  on  the  soles  of  the  feet  is  the  thickest  on  the  body, 
one  could  not  stand  on  a hot  plate  which  he  could  hold  in  his  hand. 

A red  coal  has  a heat  of  at  least  900  degrees.  Iron  begins  to  turn 
red  at  1000  degrees  and  the  blacksmith  heats  it  to  more  than  1800  to 
hammer  it  out.  The  flame  in  a kerosene  lamp  is  1400  degrees  or  more. 

CLOTHES  AFIRE. 

A child  with  clothing  afire  should  not  run  or  scream.  Running 
fans  the  flames  and  screaming  takes  deep  breaths  which  draw  the 
flame  into  the  chest. 

To  put  out  the  fire,  he  should  quickly  wrap  himself  in  some 
woolen  or  heavy  material  and  roll  upon  the  floor.  Nearly  always, 
one  can  at  once  get  a coat,  a shawl,  or  rug,  or  bed  or  lounge  cover, 
or  portiere.  One  can  help  one’s  self  better  in  this  way  than  by  using 
water,  which  quickly  runs  off. 

Any  one  seeing  a person’s  clothing  afire  should  so  wrap  and  roll 
him.  The  one  who  is  afire  usually  has  to  be  thrown  down.  This  must 
be  done  to  put  out  the  blaze  by  the  rolling  and  to  keep  him  from  breath- 
ing flame. 


42 


DANGERS  AND  CHEMISTRY  OF  FIRE. 


LESSON  NO.  19. 

Common  Fire  Dangers 

IN  KITCHENS  AND  CELLARS 

More  than  half  of  all  fires  in  dwelling  houses  start  in  the  kitchen 
or  from  sparks  from  the  kitchen  flue.  The  cook-stove  gets  no  sum- 
mer vacation.  It  is  always  fed  too  much  and  the  wood  of  the  floor 
and  wall  near  it,  in  many  houses,  is  not  protected  from  its  heat. 

A kitchen  stove  standing  three  feet  from  a bare  wooden  wall  or 
partition  may  set  it  afire.  If  the  wall  is  covered  with  a sheet  of  tin, 
zinc  or  iron  it  is  safe  to  place  the  stove  within  a foot  of  it,  not 
nearer.  The  sheet  of  metal  is  useless  if  it  is  tacked  closely  against  the 
wood;  it  must  be  held  away  half  an  inch,  so  air  behind  it  can  carry 
away  the  heat.  If  it  is  held  by  screw  hooks  it  can  be  taken  off  to  be 
polished.  Bright  tin  throws  off  heat  better  than  any  other  metal.  If 
a lath  in  a wall  is  bare  from  the  falling  out  of  a piece  of  plaster  the 
danger  is  the  same  as  from  a wooden  wall. 

THE  FLOOR 

The  boards  of  the  floor  under  a stove  must  have  over  them  a 
sheet  of  metal  big  enough  to  come  out  a foot  in  front  of  the  ash  pan. 
If  wood  is  used  for  fuel  the  sheet  of  metal  should  come  out  a foot 
beyond  the  door  through  which  the  wood  is  put  in,  because  red-hot 
coals,  or  the  burning  ends  of  sticks  which  are  too  long,  often  fall  from 
this  door. 

Many  houses  are  burned  by  the  igniting  of  clothes  and  kindling 
placed  near  the  stove  to  dry. 

A stovepipe  that  has  rust  holes  in  it,  or  openings  at  its  joints, 
such  as  are  made  by  forcing  together  pieces  of  pipe  which  do  not 
fit,  is  unsafe  and  should  be  replaced  by  new  pipe.  It  should  not  pass 
through  a floor  or  partition  or  through  any  space  in  which  it  cannot  be 
seen,  for  in  such  a place  it  may  part  at  a joint  or  holes  may  be  formed 
in  it  by  rust. 

A gasoline  stove  should  be  closed  on  three  sides  and  its  burners 
should  be  at  least  two  feet  from  the  floor. 

A chimney  built  from  above  the  kitchen  ceiling  instead  of  from 
the  ground  is  dangerously  unsafe  as  any  twisting  or  springing  of  the 
joists  will  cause  it  to  crack  so  that  sparks  will  get  out  and  start  a fire 
in  the  attic.  All  chimneys  should  be  built  from  the  ground. 


DANGERS  AND  CHEMISTRY  OF  FIRE. 


43 


THE  PANTRY 

A danger  common  in  the  pantry  is  that  from  a swinging  gas  bracket 
which  may  be  swung  to  either  side.  The  flame  from  such  a bracket 
may  set  fire  to  the  paper  used  to  cover  a shelf  or  may  start  a fire  in 
the  wood.  Rags  smeared  with  butter,  lard  or  oil  may  take  fire,  if 
thrown  where  there  is  no  movement  of  air  to  carry  away  the  heat 
made,  by  the  drying  of  the  grease  on  them.  Such  rags  and  the  wrap- 
pings from  ham,  if  thrown  into  a trash  barrel  are  likely  to  set  its 
contents  on  fire. 

The  kerosene  can  should  not  be  kept  or  used  within  fifteen  feet 
of  the  stove  and  the  gasoline  can  is  not  safe  anywhere  in  a kitchen.  In- 
deed, there  is  no  safe  place  for  a gasoline  can  except  underground  and 
even  there  it  is  unsafe  if  not  tightly  corked. 

FOUND  IN  CELLARS 

The  most  common  fire  dangers  in  cellars  are  from  the  top  of 
the  furnace  or  its  smoke  pipe  being  too  near  the  floor  above  it  and 
from  the  heating  pipes  being  too  close  to  the  wood  of  the  building.  If 
any  portion  of  the  wood  has  been  charred  by  heat,  the  danger  of  fire 
is  great,  for  the  charred  wood  will  soon  take  fire.  If  wood  near  the 
smoke  pipe  is  charred  it  should  be  cut  away  at  once. 

Warm  air  flues  should  have  a collar  around  them  where  they  pass 
through  a floor  because  they  may  become  hot  enough  to  set  the  wood 
on  fire.  Trash  on  the  top  of  the  furnace  starts  some  fires. 

Gas  jets  should  be  as  much  as  two  and  a half  feet  below  the  ceil- 
ing and  even  at  this  distance  they  should  have  above  them  a shield  of 
tin  which  does  not  rest  flat  against  the  ceiling.  The  double- jointed 
swinging  gas  fixture  is  a common  danger  in  cellars  and  elsewhere. 

If  there  is  no  gas  in  the  cellar  it  should  be  lighted  by  a coal  oil 
lamp  securely  fixed  in  a bracket  safely  placed.  Many  buildings  are 
burned  by  using  a match  while  getting  some  article  from  a dark  cellar. 
Cellar  windows  and  other  openings  should  be  covered  by  screens  of 
wire  so  that  cigar  stubs  and  burning  matches  cannot  be  thrown  through 
them  by  the  careless. 

Ashes  are  liable,  if  moist,  to  ignite  themselves  because  of  the  fine 
particles  of  coal  they  always  contain  or  from  being  mixed  with  greasy 
rubbish. 

One-sixth  of  all  the  gas  put  in  the  big  pipes  in  the  streets  leaks 
out  under  the  pavement  and  is  likely  to  get  into  the  cellar  through 
the  loose  earth  around  the  house  pipe.  This  gas  when  it  reaches  any 
blaze  will  explode,  killing  persons  and  destroying  the  building. 

Each  of  you  children  expects  to  own  a house  some  day.  Should 
you  not  learn  how  to  avoid  losing  it  by  fire? 


44 


DANGERS  AND  CHEMISTRY  OF  FIRE. 


LESSON  NO.  20. 

Garrets,  Bedrooms  and  Closets 

FIRE  DANGERS  TO  BE  HUNTED 

The  thing  to  look  for  first  in  an  attic  is  a crack  in  the  chimney. 
Many  houses  are  burned  by  sparks  coming  through  cracks  made  by 
the  settling  of  the  foundation  of  the  chimney  and  by  mortar  crumbling 
out.  A common  cause  of  fire  is  a crack  between  the  roof  and  the 
chimney  through  which  sparks  fall. 

Among  the  odds  and  ends  in  the  attic,  usually,  are  varnished 
furniture,  rags  smeared  with  grease  ready  to  take  fire  themselves, 
painting  oils  liable  to  take  fire,  and  broken  toys  of  children  who 
are  grown  and  gone  away,  or  went  to  sleep  long  ago. 

Do  not  keep  such  things  in  the  attic. 

The  garret  is  always  hot.  There  should  be  openings  at  both  ends 
for  cool  air  to  pass  through.  All  the  rough  wood  in  an  attic  should 
be  painted  or  white- washed,  because  the  fuzz  and  cobwebs  on  it  may 
take  fire  from  sparks.  The  lime  in  a coat  of  whitewash  makes  the  wood 
hard  to  burn. 

In  summer  a thrifty  mother  went  to  the  attic  to  get  papa’s  old 
suit  to  cut  down  for  Willie  and  found  a hole  burnt  in  the  coat  by 
matches  which  had  ignited  in  one  of  the  pockets.  Some  charred  match 
sticks  were  there  to  prove  it.  If  the  coat  had  not  hung  by  itself  the 
building  would  have  been  fired.  Keep  the  attic  clean. 

Most  garrets  are  dark,  so  one  is  likely  'to  strike  matches  while 
among  all  sorts  of  stuff  that  can  easily  take  fire.  Do  not  keep  such 
stuff  there  and  do  not  strike  matches  there.  Carry  a safe  light. 

As  a play  house  for  children  the  garret  is  generally  so  dangerous 
that  they  should  be  locked  out  of  it. 

THE  BED  ROOM 

The  joints  of  the  stovepipe  should  be  riveted  together  and  the 
stovepipe  must  fit  closely  both  the  stove  and  the  chimney-hole.  The 
stovepipe  should  be  12  inches  or  more  away  from  any  wood.  There 
should  be  a tight-fitting  double  collar  of  tin  or  sheet-iron  around  the 
pipe  at  the  hole  in  the  chimney. 

Stovepipe  holes  when  not  in  use  should  never  be  left  open.  They 
should  not  be  stuffed  with  paper  or  rags.  Sometimes  paper-hangers 
cover  these  holes  with  wall-paper  without  putting  in  them  the  sheet- 
iron  stopper  they  should  have.  This  is  very  dangerous. 

The  cord  of  an  electric  lamp  if  tied  in  a knot  or  hung  over  a 
nail  is  a fire  danger. 

Gas  jets  should  not  be  near  windows  or  doors ; the  wind  might  blow 
a curtain  into  the  flames  and  cause  fire ; or  the  flame  might  be  blown 


DANGERS  AND  CHEMISTRY  OF  FIRE. 


45 


out  and  the  gas  escape  and  choke  the  people  sleeping  in  the  room. 
If  there  were  another  light  in  the  room  while  gas  was  escaping,  it 
would  reach  that  flame  and  there  would  be  an  explosion. 

Any  gas  fixture  which  can  be  moved  from  side  to  side  should  have 
a stop  on  each  side  to  keep  the  blaze  away  from  wood,  or  the  blaze 
should  have  around  it  a globe  or  wire  hood  to  keep  it  away  from  the 
wall,  or  dresser,  or  window  curtain.  No  gas  jet  should  be  nearer  the 
ceiling  than  two  and  one-half  feet. 

In  bedrooms  there  are  fire  dangers,  from  curling  irons  heated  by 
alochol  lamps  or  electricity. 

RUBBER  TUBES  FOR  GAS  STOVES 

The  use  of  a rubber  or  other  flexible  tube  to  carry  gas  to  a stove  is 
a constant  source  of  serious  danger.  The  end  of  the  tube  may  be 

slipped  off  unnoticed  and  allow  gas  to  choke  those  in  the  room  or  let 

gas  escape  to  explode  and  burn  them.  One  of  these  tubes  may  be 
knocked  off  by  kicking  it,  or  with  a broom,  or  a child  may  pull  it  off 
in  play.  The  rubber  in  them  gets  hard  and  cracks  so  that  they  will 
drop  off  near  the  stove.  In  many  cities  the  use  of  such  tubes  is  wisely 
prohibited  by  law. 

.A  gas  stove  used  in  a bedroom,  or  in  any  other  place,  should  have 

a vent  pipe  runnning  to  the  chimney.  When  gas  is  burned  in  a stove 

which  has  no  vent  pipe  to  the  chimney,  it  is  sure  to  injure  the  health 
of  those  who  sleep  near  it.  If  the  gas  is  turned  high  it  may  choke  or 
suffocate  them. 

Gas  stoves  are  often  dangerously  near  wood.  They  should  always 
have  a sheet  of  metal  under  them. 

CLOTHES  CLOSETS 

Most  closets  have  no  openings  or  windows  through  which  the  air 
can  move  to  carry  away  heat.  When  the  heat  cannot  pass  off,  rags, 
aprons,  overalls  with  grease  on  them,  kept  in  the  closets,  may  take 
fire.  Such  things  should  never  be  kept  in  closets.  If  they  must  be 
kept  at  all  in  their  greasy  condition,  put  them  in  an  outhouse  with 
free  circulation  of  air;  but  the  only  safe  way  is  to  burn  them.  Never 
use  a lighted  match  in  hunting  for  anything  in  a closet.  The  match 
heads  may  fly  off,  or  the  burning  match  may  drop  and  set  fire  to  clothing. 

Only  a little  match-head, 

Dropped  on  the  closet  floor; 

Only  a little  apron, 

Hanging  beside  the  door ; 

Only  a little  creeping, 

Up  to  the  apron-strings ; 

Only  a home  in  ashes  ! 

Think  of  these  “little”  things! 


46 


DANGERS  AND  CHEMISTRY  OF  FIRE. 


Floor  sweepings  left  under  beds  or  in  closets  are  a danger  from  self- 
lighting  or  flying  sparks  or  match-heads,  but  of  course  no  good  house- 
keeper would  allow  such  a thing! 

The  most  dangerous  closet  is  the  one  under  a stairway.  If  such 
a closet  is  on  fire,  the  people  can  not  come  safely  down  the  stairs  from 
the  rooms  above.  Putting  ashes  in  a closet  is  very  dangerous.  Hot 
ashes  put  against  wood  cause  many  terrible  fires. 

Fire  is  a splendid  servant  but  a terrible  master.  Clean  house- 
keeping and  common  sense  will  prevent  the  fire  danger.  The  time  to 
put  out  a fire  is  before  it  starts. 


LESSON  NO.  21. 

Bams  and  Stables 

SMOKE  HOUSES  AND  KETTLES 

A fire  started  in  a farmer’s  barn  is  likely  to  burn  it  to  the  ground, 
because  there  is  no  fire  department  to  call. 

Sweating  hay  is  by  far  the  greatest  cause  of  fires  in  barns,  for  it 
produces  spontaneous  combustion  and  draws  lightning. 

Why  does  hay  become  heated  and  sweat? 

The  cells  in  the  grass  make  hay  go  on  living  and  breathing  for 
some  time  after  the  grass  is  cut.  This  makes  heat.  The  seeds  in  the 
grass  begin  to  sprout,  and  tiny  germs  in  the  blades  live  for  several 
weeks  after  the  hay  is  stored  in  the  mow.  These  three  causes  make  so 
much  heat  that  if  the  mow  is  full  so  there  is  little  air  to  carry  the 
heat  away,  the  center  of  the  hay  pile  gets  as  hot  as  boiling  water. 

THE  STEAM  FROM  HAY 

This  great  heat  makes  the  juice  in  the  grass  give  off  steam.  So, 
above  every  mow  in  which  there  is  new  hay,  there  ris6s  a funnel 
shaped  cloud  of  moist  air  reaching  up  toward  any  thunder  cloud  which 
may  pass  over.  This  forms  an  easier  path  for  lightning  to  pass  in 
reaching  the  earth  than  it  would  find  in  dry  air. 

There  is  another  danger  from  sweating  hay.  The  hay  in  the  center 
of  the  mow,  after  getting  gas  hot  as  boiling  water,  begins  to  char.  The 
charcoal  draws  oxygen  from  the  air  and  becomes  so  hot  that  it  bursts 
into  flame.  Shredded  fodder  sometimes  sets  itself  afire  in  the  same  way. 

Whether  the  hay  takes  fire  from  lightning,  or  from  spontaneous 
combustion  from  heating  itself,  the  whole  barn  seems  to  take  fire  at 
once.  In  such  fires  the  machinery  and  the  horses  and  cattle  in  the  barn 
are  all  likely  to  be  burned. 


DANGERS  AND  CHEMISTRY  OF  FIRE. 


47 


LIGHTNING  AND  MATCHES 

More  than  one-fourth  of  all  the  loss  from  the  burning  of  barns 
is  in  those  set  afire  by  lightning.  To  save  them  from  lightning  strokes 
they  should  have  lightning  rods  to  carry  the  thunderbolt  down,  outside 
the  barn  wall,  to  the  ground. 

A great  many  barns  and  stables  are  burned  by  carelessness  with 
matches.  The  farmer  or  hostler  sticks  matches  in  cracks,  or  carries 
them  in  his  hatband,  to  have  them  handy,  and  they  fall  into  the  litter 
on  the  floor.  Then  a horse  or  cow,  sometimes  the  farmer  himself, 
steps  on  one  of  them  and  sets  it  off.  Then  the  litter  blazes  and  the 
barn  burns. 

The  most  dangerous  thing  used  in  barns  is  the  lantern,  which  is 
often  broken  or  upset.  Boys  who  are  so  foolish  as  to  smoke  cigarettes, 
often  hide  in  the  barn  and  set  it  afire  with  cigarette  stubs  or  matches. 

Sleepy  hostlers  start  fires  in  livery  stables  while  caring  for  horses 
brought  in  at  night. 

Neatsfoot  oil  for  greasing  harness  and  castor  oil  for  greasing 
axles  are  likely  to  take  fire  if  spilled  upon  stable  litter. 

Sparks  from  railway  engines  and  steam  threshing  machines  cause 
a great  number  of  barn  fires.  Many  more  are  started  by  children  play- 
ing with  fire  or  matches,  or  from  burning  rubbish. 

Smokehouses  are  burned  by  failure  to  watch  the  fires  in  them. 
Some  buildings  are  burned  each  autumn  by  smoking  meat  in  barrels  or 
boxes. 

Allowing  grease,  pitch  or  paint  that  is  being  cooked  in  kettles  to  boil 
over,  starts  fires  which  cost  more  than  $2,000,000  a year  in  this  country. 

Rats  and  mice  like  to  build  their  nests  in  warm  corners  near 
stovepipes  and  chimneys  where  sparks  may  fire  the  fine  litter  from 
which  they  are  made. 


LESSON  NO.  22. 

Smokers  and  Rubbish 

THE  VALUE  OF  BUILDINGS  THEY  BURN 

The  carelessness  of  smokers  of  tobacco,  in  throwing  away  cigar 
stubs  and  emptying  pipes,  sets  fire  to  about  2,000  buildings  every  year 
in  the  United  States.  Smokers  set  fire  to  a still  greater  number  of 
buildings  by  carelessness  with  matches.  They  use  most  of  the  matches. 
Fires  are  started  by  cigar  and  cigarette  stubs  dropped  through  pave- 
ment gratings  into  rubbish ; by  throwing  them  into  waste-paper  baskets 
and  into  wooden  spittoons.  A number  of  fires  start  in  barns  in  which 
men  have  been  smoking,  soon  after  they  have  gone  away. 


48 


DANGERS  AND  CHEMISTRY  OF  FIRE. 


A great  fire  was  started  by  the  driver  of  a delivery  wagon  throwing 
a cigar  stub  over  a fence  into  a pile  of  rubbish.  Careless  smokers  start 
many  fires  in  wood-sheds  and  in  buildings  of  all  kinds. 

PIPES  AND  CIGARETTES 

Burning  tobacco  from  a pipe  is  more  likely  to  set  fire  to  litter, 
trash  or  rubbish  than  is  a cigar  stub.  A cigarette  is  worse  than  the 
glowing  tobacco  from  a pipe.  A Turkish  cigarette,  once  it  is  lighted, 
will  continue  to  burn  for  five  minutes,  or  until  it  is  all  burned  up. 

A cigar  stub  dropped  upon  the  dress  of  a lady  sitting  in  the  grand- 
stand at  a state  fair  ignited  it.  Her  life  was  saved  by  an  assistant  state 
fire  marshal  tearing  off  her  dress. 

The  skirts  of  a lady  standing  in  the  street  took  fire  from  a cigar- 
ette thrown  against  it  and  she  was  burned  to  death. 

RUBBISH  CATCHES  FIRE 

There  is  a great  loss  from  letting  rubbish  and  trash  gather  in 
buildings.  A large  part  of  the  fires  from  flying  sparks  would  not 
have  happened  if  there  had  been  no  trash  for  them  to  light  in.  More 
than  half  of  all  the  fires  that  start  themselves  by  spontaneous  com- 
bustion, start  in  rubbish.  Fires  from  children  playing  with  matches 
nearly  all  start  in  rubbish,  and  so  do  most  of  the  blazes  from  fire- 
crackers. Old  paper  usually  forms  the  largest  part  of  rubbish  heaps 
and  it  ignites  very  easily. 

There  is  no  safe  place  but  the  stove  for  rags  that  have  any  kind 
of  grease  on  them.  This  includes  rags  which  have  been  used  to  wipe 
oil  from  the  sewing  machine. 

Floor  sweepings  under  furniture  or  in  a closet  are  liable  to  take 
fire  spontaneously  or  from  a flying  match  head. 

A FIRE  marshal's  DUTIES 

A state  fire  marshal  is  named  by  the  governor  and  has  an  office  in 
the  capital. 

The  facts  about  every  fire  which  burns  a building  or  goods  in  this 
state  are  told  him  in  a letter  by  the  chief  of  the  fire  department,  the 
mayor  or  the  township  clerk.  If  he  thinks  that  the  man  who  owned 
the  building  burned  it  to  get  insurance  money,  or  that  some  one  fired  the 
building  because  he  was  angry  at  the  owner,  or  that  it  was  set  afire 
.by  some  one  who  was  crazy,  he  directs  one  of  the  men  who  work  for 
him  to  get  the  whole  truth  and  have  the  guilty  person  arrested  and 
punished. 

Any  one  that  burns  a building  or  goods  to  get  insurance  money,  or 
to  get  even  with  some  one,  is  sent  to  the  penitentiary.  One  who  burns 
property  because  he  is  crazy,  is  sent  to  the  hospital  for  the  insane. 


DANGERS  AND  CHEMISTRY  OF  FIRE. 


49 


LESSON  NO.  23 

Things  Made  From  Celluloid 

MOVING  PICTURE  SHOWS 

No  houses  and  few  dressers  can  now  be  found  which  do  not  con- 
tain articles  of  celluloid  which  are  easily  set  afire. 

Nearly  all  the  pretty  combs,  that  can  be  bought  for  little  money, 
are  made  of  celluloid.  Other  things  made  from  celluloid  are  tooth,  nail 
and  shaving  brushes,  manicure  sets,  boxes  for  cuffs,  handkerchiefs,  soap 
and  powder-puffs,  trays,  knife  handles,  piano  keys,  baskets,  corset  stays, 
book-backs,  playing  cards,  baby  rattles  and  even  eye  shades.  Any  one 
of  these  may  be  set  on  fire  by  the  heat  from  a gas  jet,  or  kerosene  lamp 
or  electric  light.  A hot  curling  iron  or  the  flame  from  a match  will  ignite 
any  thin  piece  of  celluloid. 

Different  makers  of  this  material  give  it  different  names,  such  as 
celluloid,  fiberloid,  viscOloid,  pyralin,  zylonite  and  coraline.  Those  who 
use  things  made  from  it  call  it  celluloid.  Beautiful  cloth  and  imitation 
leather  is  made  by  spreading  celluloid  on  cotton  cloth  and  passing  it 
through  rollers. 

Celluloid  is  made  from  shreds  of  cotton,  or  tissue  paper,  which  are 
soaked  with  nitric  and  sulphuric  acids,  and  then  made  into  a soft  mass 
by  adding  alcohol  and  camphor.  The  dyestuff,  to  make  it  look  like 
amber,  ivory  or  tortoise-shell  is  then  put  in.  This  mass  is  rolled  in  sheets 
and  heated  while  under  hundreds  of  tons  of  weight  which  makes  it  hard 
If  more  nitric  acid  were  used  the  mass  would  be  like  smokeless  powder, 
which  is  used  in  cannon. 

Celluloid  can  be  cut  or  sawn  and  if  warmed  can  be  bent  or  pressed 
into  any  shape. 

IT  MAY  EXPLODE 

Celluloid  always  takes  fire  with  a flash  and  burns  quickly,  making 
a great  heat  and  much  smoke  because  it,  like  gun  powder,  holds  oxygen 
within  it,  which  helps  it  burn,  and  therefore  does  not  need  to  get  so  much 
oxygen  from  the  air  around  it. 

If  celluloid  is  heated  slowly  it  gives  off  a.  gas  or  vapor,  which  when 
mixed  with  air  becomes  an  explosive,  just  as  gasolene  vapor  does.  This 
vapor  is  just  as  dangerous  as  the  vapor  of  gasolene  because  it  will  ex- 
plode when  it  is  touched  by  a flame,  spark,  hot  coal  or  hot  iron. 

Several  men  have  been  badly  burned  by  celluloid  collars,  they  were 
wearing,  taking  fire  from  matches  or  cigars.  How  dangerous  must  it 
then  be  to  wear  an  eye-shade  made  of  it?  Who  would  want  the  baby 
to  have  a rattle  made  of  it? 


50 


DANGERS  AND  CHEMISTRY  OF  FIRE. 


George,  the  four-year-old  son  of  Mr.  and  Mrs.  M.  G.  Thraves  was 
seriously  burned  when  a celluloid  comb  he  had  in  his  hand  caught  fire 
from  an  open  grate  and  went  up  in  smoke  with  a flash.  Both  of  the 
child’s  hands  and  arms  were  burned  and  the  flames  also  reached  his 
head  and  face,  burning  off  his  eyebrows  and  some  of  his  hair  and  rais- 
ing large  blisters  on  his  face. 

A kerosene  lamp  put  upon  the  counter  in  a store  in  Marengo,  caused 
the  ignition  of  a bunch  of  celluloid  combs  which  hung  two  feet  above 
it  and  set  the  place  afire. 

A girl  in  a suburb  of  Cincinnati  was  stooping  in  front  of  a grate  to 
tie  her  shoe.  A comb  in  her  hair  took  fire.  The  burn  from  this  left  a 
scarred  bald  spot  as  big  as  a silver  dollar. 

MOVING  PICTURES 

There  is  danger  of  fire  from  moving  picture  machines  because  the 
long  ribbon  on  which  the  pictures  are  photographed  is  made  of  cellu- 
loid. This  ribbon  may  be  ignited  by  heat,  sparks,  or  by  the  heat  of  the 
light  placed  behind  it.  The  ribbon  is  one  and  three-eighths  inches  wide 
and  one-fiftieth  of  an  inch  thick.  If  a whole  show  is  on  one  ribbon,  it 
is  more  than  a quarter  of  a mile  long. 

The  ribbon  is  wound  from  one  spool  to  another  while  a bright  light 
passes  through  it  throwing  the  picture  upon  the  muslin  stretched  across 
the  stage.  If  the  ribbon  stops  moving  for  an  instant  the  heat  from  the 
light  sets  it  afire  with  a flash.  Because  of  this  danger  picture  machines 
should  be  operated  in  fire-proof  cabinets;  films  made  from  celluloid, 
which  is  a cellulose  nitrate,  should  not  be  used  in  homes,  schools  or 
churches  unless  so  enclosed.  For  such  use  they  should  be  made  from 
cellulose  acetate,  which  burns  slowly. 

One  is  deceived  by  the  moving  picture  because  his  eyes  see  a pic- 
ture for  one-seventh  of  a second  after  it  is  gone.  For  this  reason  we 
do  not  notice  that  we  wink  while  reading.  We  do  not  notice  the  closing 
of  our  eyes  because  the  time  they  are  shut  is  less  than  one-seventh  of  a 
second,  so,  we  really  see  the  words  all  the  time. 

To  make  a moving  picture  one  must  have  a theater,  actors,  a 
camera  with  a quickly  moving  shutter,  and  a ribbon  of  celluloid  on  which 
are  spread  the  materials  used  in  making  photographs.  When  the  actors 
are  ready  to  begin  the  play,  the  ribbon  in  the  camera,  which  is  in  the 
back  of  the  theater,  is  moved  behind  the  lens  and  the  shutter  flies  open 
often  enough  to  let  a picture  be  made  on  each  inch  of  the  ribbon.  Dur- 
ing the  show  one  of  these  ribbons  is  moved  in  front  of  a strong  light 
so  the  photographs,  one  after  another,  quickly  are  thrown  upon  the 
muslin  screen.  The  time  during  which  the  eye  holds  the  picture  is  as 
long  as  the  time  taken  in  changing  from  one  photograph  to  the  next. 
Everything  seen  in  a moving  picture  really  happened  once. 


dangers  and  chemistry  of  fire. 


51 


LESSON  NO.  24 

Electricity 

LIGHTING  WITH  INCANDESCENT  LAMPS 

Electricity  is  a cause  of  light,  heat,  motion  and  lightning.  It  is  not 
a substance,  for  it  has  no  weight,  but  we  can  make  it,  measure  it  and  con- 
trol its  power  with  machines.  The  heat  of  sunshine  stored  in  coal, 
thousands  of  years  ago,  is  used  to  make  steam  to  move  an  engine.  The 
engine  rapidly  turns  a coil  of  copper  wire  near  a magnet.  This  makes 
the  electric  current  which  flows  in  the  wires.  The  machine  which  changes 
motion  into  electrical  power  is  a dynamo. 

An  engine  makes  a dynamo  turn,  causing  electricity  to  travel  through 
a wire.  At  the  other  end  of  the  wire  the  electricity  makes  a motor  turn. 
A dynamo  makes  electricity  and  a motor  uses  it.  A motor  is  a dynamo 
run  backward,  and  the  electric  current  is  thus  changed  back  to  motion 
and  carried  to  the  wheels  of  a street,  car,  or  a factory. 

The  electric  current  is  easily  controlled  when-  it  is  carried  by  cop- 
per or  steel  wires,  but  it  passes  through  the  air  with  difficulty,  and  not 
at  all  through  glass  or  porcelain.  When  the  current  is  of  very  high 
power,  as  in  a flash  of  lightning,  its  passage  through  air  creates  a white- 
hot  streak  that  we  call  lightning  and  the  noise  which  follows  is  thunder, 
caused  by  the  rushing  together  of  the  air  which  was  separated  by  the 
flash  of  lightning. 

Electricity  coming  from  a cloud  to  the  earth  is  usually  attracted 
by  a tree,  or  a house  or  other  high  object,  which  is  usually  more  or  less 
shattered  by  the  stroke.  If  the  house  has  a lightning  rod  of  iron  or  cop- 
per on  it,  it  gives  the  electricity  an  easy  path  to  the  earth  and  saves  the 
house. 

Electricity  for  lighting  a house  is  safer  than  gas,  kerosene  or  candles, 
because  no  matches  are  needed  and  there  is  no  blaze  to  set  anything  afire. 
But  if  the  wires  become  crossed  they  may  get  red-hot  and  then  it  can 
start  wood  to  burning. 

WHAT  CAUSES  THE  LIGHT  FROM  AN  ELECTRIC  LAMP? 

One  end  of  a copper  wire  carrying  a current  of  electricity  is  con- 
nected to  a fine  thread  within  the  glass  bulb,  and  another  wire  is  at- 
tached to  the  other  end  of  it,  so  the  electricity  in  passing  through  this 
thread  or  filament  makes  it  white-hot,  because  the  thread  resists  the 
passage  of  the  current  and  becomes  heated,  but  does  not  burn  up  be- 
cause the  glass  bulb  in  which  it  is  held  has  no  air  in  it.  The  filament 
is  made  by  heating  a thread  of  fiber  until  it  is  like  charcoal,  which  is 
made  white-hot  when  electricity  passes  through  it.  This  causes  light. 


52  DANGERS  AND  CHEMISTRY  OF  FIRE. 

The  air  in  the  bulb  is  pumped  out  through  a small  tube  at  the  lower  end. 
When  the  air  is  all  out  this  tube  is  melted  off,  leaving  the  little  point 
which  is  seen  on  every  globe. 

Only  a part  of  the  electricity  used  by  an  incandescent  electric  lamp 
is  changed  into  light.  The  rest  is  changed  into  heat.  So  the  bulb  may 
become  hot  enough  to  set  fire  to  anything  against  it  that  is  easily 
ignited.  A candle,  gas  jet,  or  kerosene  lamp  gives  off  ioo  times  as  much 
heat  as  it  does  light.  The  common  electric  bulb  makes  as  much  light  as 
16  candles. 

One  may  easily  learn  that  the  common  bulb  placed  against  a pine 
board  will  char  it  in  four  hours  and  that  it  will  blister  varnish  in  three 
minutes.  If  a towel  or  two  thicknesses  of  muslin  or  curtain  stuff  are 
wrapped  around  a lighted  bulb  the  cloth  will  begin  to  smoke  in  three 
minutes,  and  if  pulled  off  at  the  end  of  six  minutes  it  will  sometimes 
burst  into  flame.  Cotton  against  a bulb  will  char  in  ten  minutes  and 
then  a slight  draft  of  air  will  set  it  afire.  Newspaper  chars  in  three 
minutes  and  may  take  fire  in  45  minutes. 

. THE  HEAT  OF  T^IE  LAMP 

Celluloid  combs,  pins  and  ornaments  soon  burn  explosively  if  put 
against  an  incandescent  lamp.  It  may  set  fire  to  a paper  shade. 

A pint  of  water  with  a lighted  lamp  in  it  will  boil  in  an  hour.  An 
Ohio  printer  dried  his  rain-coat  by  wrapping  it  around  an  incandescent 
lamp.  When  he  took  it  off,  a piece  the  size  of  the  lamp  dropped  out 
of  its  back. 

There  comes  a time  in  the  life  of  every  incandescent  lamp  when 
it  costs  more  to  feed  it  than  its  work  is  worth.  This  is  known  as  its 
“breaking  point,”  for  it  is  cheaper  to  break  it,  and  put  in  a new  one. 

A lamp  reaches  the  “breaking  point”  when  used  four  months  in 
winter  or  twice  as  long  in  summer,  when  the  evenings  are  short.  A 
bulb  which  looks  brownish  should  be  thrown  away. 

Electric  bulbs  so  placed  that  the  light  from  them  goes  straight  into 
one’s  eyes,  must  be  frosted  or  the  eyes  will  be  hurt.  It  takes  half  as 
many  more  frosted  lamps  to  make  a room  as  light  as  plain  ones  would. 

SHORT  CIRCUITS 

The  wire  which  carries  electricity  to  a lamp  and  the  wire  which 
carries  away  the  current  that  is  used  in  making  the  light,  are  usually 
close  together.  If  the  covering  of  the  wires  is  worn  off  or  is  wet  where 
they  are  near  each  other,  the  current  will  pass  directly  from  one  wire  to 
the  other  instead  of  going  through  the  lamp  to  do  its  work.  Where  the 
electricity  crosses,  is  called  a “short  circuit,”  causing  the  wires  to  be- 
come very  hot,  often  so  hot  they  melt  and  set  fire  in  anything  near  that 
will  burn.  In  this  way  many  houses  are  destroyed. 


dangers  and  chemistry  of  fire. 


53 


Many  buildings  are  set  afire  by  short  circuits  in  the  long  cords 
from  which  some  lamps  are  hung.  In  them  the  wires  are  very  fine, 
twisted  together  with  only  a thin  covering  between  them.  When  they 
are  wet,  tied  in  knots,  hung  over  nails  or  bent  around  wooden  corners, 
the  covering  will  be  worn  through  and  a short  circuit  be  formed.  A 
short  circuit  where  one  of  these  cords  is  hung  over  a nail  will  make  the 
nail  red-hot  and  fire  the  wood  around  it.  Another  reason  why  long 
cords  should  not  be  used  is  that  they  allow  one  to  move  the  lamp 
against  things  likely  to  take  fire  from  it. 

Ralph  Henry,  aged  21,  was  electrocuted  when  he  attempted  to  turn 
on  an  electric  light  while  standing  in  a bathtub. 

He  had  gone  to  the  bathroom  and  a short  time  later  his  sister  heard 
him  cry  out.  She  went  to  help  him  and  found  him  standing  in  the  filled 
bathtub  holding  to  the  electric  light  fixture.  She  turned  off  the  cur- 
rent and  as  she  did  so  he  fell  across  the  side  of  the  tub  unconscious. 
Physicians  were  called  and  brought  a pulmotor  to  the  house  but  they 
were  unable  to  restore  consciousness  and  he  soon  was  dead.  Defective 
insulation  in  the  lighting  fixture,  it  is  believed,  caused  the  current  to 
enter  his  body.  The  water  in  the  tub  completed  the  circuit. 


LESSON  NO.  25 

Electric  Arc  Lamps 

AND  TROLLEY-  CARS  IN  CITY  STREETS 

Children  who  play  with  the  wires  of  the  incandescent  electrical 
lamps  are  likely  to  set  the  building  afire.  Children  who  play  with  wires 
outside  the  house  are  likely  to  be  killed. 

The  pressure  of  a current  of  electricity  is  measured  by  the  “volt.” 
Half  a volt  is  needed  for  a telephone  wire,  500  volts  to  move  a street 
car,  and  usually  6,500  volts  for  the  street  arc  lamps  of  the  city.  The 
“ampere”  is  a measure  of  the  quantity  of  electricity  used  for  making 
light  or  running  machinery.  The  number  of  volts  or  amperes  used  is 
shown  by  a meter,  which  is  read  like  a gas  meter. 

The  no  volts  of  electricity  put  on  the  house  wire  may  burn  the 
skin  and  may  shock  one.  The  wires  which  run  to  the  street  lamps 
carry  many  times  enough  electricity  to  kill  a person.  The  street  and 
the  house  lamp  wires  cross  in  many  places,  so  a house  wire  may  by 
swinging  against  a street  wire  become  charged  with  enough  high  power 
electricity  to  kill  one  instantly.  Any  small  wire  may  carry  a killing 
charge  of  electricity. 


54 


DANGERS  AND  CHEMISTRY  OF  FIRE. 


An  Ohio  boy  was  using  a fine  copper  wire  for  string  to  his  kite. 
The  wire  got  across  the  street  lamp  wire  and  the  current  killed  him.  His 
mother  who  tried  to  take  the  kite  string  from  his  hand  was  killed  too. 

arcs 

If  a wire  carrying  electricity  breaks,  and  the  ends  stay  near  each 
other,  the  electricity  may  jump  across  the  space  between.  This  is  known 
as  an  arc.  Nothing  else  on  earth  is  so  hot  as  an  electric  arc.  An  arc 
may  be  formed  by  the  electricity  jumping  from  any  part  of  one  wire  to 
another,  if  they  are  too  close.  Many  buildings  are  burned  by  arcs  be- 
tween wires. 

It  is  an  arc  in  the  street  lamp  that  makes  the  light.  The  wire  carry- 
ing the  electricity  has  a piece  cut  out  of  it  where  it  passes  through  the 
lamp.  Each  end  of  the  wire  being  attached  to  carbon  tips,  with  a small 
space  between  them,  across  which  the  current  jumps  and  heats  the  car- 
bon. The  heat  would  melt  the  ends  of  the  wire  if  tips  of  carbon,  which 
can  not  melt,  were  not  put  on  them.  The  upper  carbon  becomes  white- 
hot  and  makes  the  light.  Electricity  for  street  lighting  passes  out  from 
the  power  house  on  one  wire  which  runs  through  the  lamps  and  back  to 
it  by  another.  You  may  have  noticed  that  light  wires  run  in  pairs  and 
that  they  are  held  on  glass  knobs  through  which  electricity  can  not  pass. 
These  knobs  are  called  insulators. 

STREET  LAMPS 

Most  of  the  street  arc  lamps  now  in  use  have  a glass  globe  around 
the  carbon  ends  between  which  the  light  is  made.  This  keeps  sparks 
from  flying  about  and  keeps  out  the  moths  and  beetles  which  are  at- 
tracted by  the  glare  of  the  flame.  The  globe  is  frosted  to  make  the 
light  easier  for  the  eyes. 

One  of  these  lamps  gives  as  much  light  as  2,000  candles.  It  costs 
about  $80  a year  to  feed  it  with  electricity  and  put  in  new  carbons. 

The  electric  arc  lamps  which  give  a flood  of  bright  yellow  light  are 
known  as  “flaming  arcs.”  In  them  the  carbon  point  has  fine  pieces  of 
metal  in  its  center  and  the  electricity  jumps  five  times  as  far  as  it  does 
in  the  common  street  lamp.  The  metals  burning  in  the  current  add  to 
the  brightness  of  the  flame.  New  carbons  have  to  be  put  in  them  every 
night.  The  light  given  by  the  flaming  arc  is  five  times  as  great  as  that 
of  the  electric  common  street  lamp.  It  is  equal  to  the  light  of  10,000 
candles. 

Electricity  always  seeks  to  return  to  Mother  Earth.  If  a wire 
carrying  electricity  touches  any  other  wire,  iron  rod  or  tin  pipe  which 
reaches  the  ground,  the  electric  current  will  rush  to  the  earth.  Lightning 
traveling  along  the  top  wire  of  a fence  often  jumps  more  than  a foot 


DANGERS  AND  CHEMISTRY  OF  FIRE. 


55 


to  a cow,  reaching  the  ground  through  her  body,  which,  being  two- 
thirds  water  forms  an  easy  path  for  the  passage  of  the  electric  current 
to  the  earth.  A man  is  also  a good  conductor,  for  the  same  reason.  If, 
on  every  sixth  fence  post,  a wire  is  fastened  to  the  fence  wires  and  run 
into  the  ground,  lightning  will  pass  down  it  into  the  earth. 

A boy  could  do  a “giant  swing”  or  “skin  the  cat”  on  any  wire 
carrying  electricity  without  being  hurt,  but  if  his  feet  or  any  portion  of 
his  body  should  touch  the  earth  or  another  wire  he  would  drop  dead. 

When  the  wire  which  carries  the  electric  current  from  the  dynamo 
comes  in  contact  with  another  wire  or  any  metal  which  enters  the  earth, 
the  current  passes  into  them  and  produces  what  is  called  a “ground.” 
Grounds  also  occur  from  wires  touching  gas  and  water  pipes  and  other 
wires. 

A ground  is  likely  to  make  a heat  which  will  set  a building  on  fire. 

STREET  CAR  DANGERS 

The  electric  current  for  a street  car  passes  from  the  over-head  wire 
down  the  trolley  pole,  through  the  controller,  which  the  motorman  uses, 
to  a motor  under  the  car.  From  the  motor  it  goes  through  the  wheels 
to  the  rails  The  force  put  in  a trolley  wire  is  never  less  than  500  volts. 
That  is  enough  to  kill  one  if  he  is  standing  on  a wet  pavement.  The  cur- 
rent is  the  same  on  the  third  rail  which  sometimes  is  used  in  the  place 
of  the  trolley  wire. 

A man  who  had  been  fifteen  years  president  of  the  street  car  com- 
pany in  an  Indiana  city,  seeing  a broken  trolley  wire,  got  a step  ladder 
and  brought  it  down.  When  he  reached  the  ground  the  current  passed 
through  him,  killing  him  instantly  and  burning  his  body.  His  wife  was 
then  called  to  the  telephone,  to  be  given  the  sad  news,  and  a lightning 
flash  along  the  telephone  wire  stunned  and  injured  her  severely. 

One  riding  in  a street  car  would  not  be  shocked  by  a broken  trolley 
wire,  if  he  is  not  touching  metal  parts  of  the  car. 

Most  persons  have  been  frightened  by  noise  and  jar  from  an  ex- 
plosion under  a street  car.  There  is  no  danger  at  all  from  that.  If  the 
current  of  electricity  becomes  so  strong  that  it  is  likely  to  damage  the 
motor,  a piece  of  soft  wire,  called  a “safety  fuse,”  burns  with  noise  and 
smoke.  This  stops  the  passage  of  the  current  to  the  motor. 

The  electric  heat-pad  which  is  sometimes  put  under  the  bed  covers 
will  burn  blankets  and  other  bedding  if  not  carefully  used. 

Electric  flatirons  very  often  set  ironing  boards  afire  when  the  user 
leaves  them  without  shutting  off  the  current.  In  the  United  States  about 
100  fires  a day  are  started  by  electrical  flatirons,  curling  irons,  toasters 
and  plate  warmers,  because  of  being  left  with  the  current  on  their  iron 
when  not  in  use. 


56 


DANGERS  AND  CHEMISTRY  OF  FIRE, 


LESSON  NO.  26 

Telegraph  and  Telephone  Wires 

MAY  CARRY  A DEADLY  CURRENT 

The  dangers  from  telegraph  and  telephone  wires  are  almost  entirely 
from  their  being  in  bad  company. 

Telegraph  wires  carry  electrical  currents  with  25  to  60  volts,  usually, 
but  such  as  are  worked  direct  between  cities  in  Ohio  and  New  York  or 
Philadelphia  are  given  265  to  300  volts.  This  current  would  only  slightly 
shock  one  if  it  passed  through  his  body.  But  telegraph  and  telephone 
wires  at  many  street  corners  cross  light  and  power  wires  which  carry 
killing  currents,  and  they  are  often  on  the  same  line  of  poles. 

If  a telephone  or  telegraph  wire  touches  one  that  is  carrying  a large 
load  of  electricity,  it  is  heated  so  hot  that  it  will  burn  any  wood  it  is 
against,  so,  any  such  wire  may  start  a fire  that  will  burn  a building. 

The  great  danger  to  life  from  these  wires  is  from  their  being  broken 
off  and  falling  across  light  or  power  wires  during  a storm. 

In  cities,  so  great  is  the  danger  from  wires  hanging  or  lying  about 
that  one  should  not  touch  any  wire.  It  invites  a serious  burn  or  sudden 
death.  Especially  should  boys,  “Tom  Boys,”  too,  be  careful  not  to  climb 
any  pole  which  carries  wires.  The  ground  wire,  and  the  iron  tube  which 
covers  the  lower  part  of  it  beside  the  pole,  may  carry  to  them  a deadly 
current.  A guy  wire,  used  to  steady  a pole,  may  be  charged  with  a load 
of  electricity  five  times  greater  than  that  necessary  to  kill  a boy. 

A fuse  is  a piece  of  soft  metal,  like  solder,  which  is  put  into  every 
wire  where  it  branches  from  the  stem  which  feeds  it.  If  the  current 
becomes  too  strong,  as  from  a short  circuit,  or  from  contact  with  an- 
other wire,  this  fuse  melts  and  breaks  the  circuit.  These  fuses  are  needed, 
in  all  wires.  The  same  kind  of  fuses  may  be  seen  through  the  glass 
doors  covering  the  knife  switches  by  which  light  is  turned  on  in  dif- 
ferent parts  of  factories  and  stores. 

TELEPHONES 

The  100  million  people  in  America  have  more  telephones  than  the 
500  million  people  in  Europe. 

The  telephone  has  some  fire  dangers  but  saves  far  more  property 
than  it  destroys,  because  everybody  knows  how  to  use  it  to  call  the  fire 
department. 

The  current  put  upon  telephone  lines  being  20  to  25  volts,  they  are 
harmless,  and  telephone  instruments  are  well  protected  by  fuses  and  have 
ground  wires  to  which  the  current  will  jump  if  it  becomes  too  strong. 


DANGERS  AND  CHEMISTRY  OF  FIRE. 


57 


But  a dangerous  shock  may  come  through  a telephone  wire,  if  a wire 
carrying  a high  voltage  touches  it.  At  nearly  every  city  street  corner 
telephone  wires  cross  under  or  over  electric  light  wires  which  may  carry 
6500  volts,  and  over  trolley  wires  which  carry  500  volts ; if  any  one  of 
these  telephone  wires  breaks,  its  loose  ends  are  likely  to  touch  wires 
having  greater  voltage,  and  become  dangerously  over-charged. 

In  Wapakoneta  a lineman,  having  a telephone  wire  in  his  hand,  let 
it  touch  the  wire  of  an  interurban  trolley  line  and 'was  instantly  killed. 

It  often  happens  that  unused  telephone  wires  are  left  on  poles  and 
houses  until  they  are  broken,  or  rust  off,  or  the  pieces  of  wood  holding 
them  decay,  and  let  them  fall  across  wires  that  load  them  with  charges 
more  dangerous  than  those  in  a pistol. 

A boy  in  Toledo,  who  worked  for  the  telephone  company,  in  pull- 
ing an  old  wire,  to  roll  it  up,  let  it  touch  a light  wire.  He  pitched  for- 
ward against  the  curb.  When  a doctor  got  to  him  he  was  still  groaning 
but  died  a few  minutes  later. 

WIRES  IN  ALLEYS 

In  some  large  telephone  systems  the  poles  may  carry  250  wires. 
They  are  often  placed  in  alleys,  and  if  a fire  breaks  out  in  a building 
near  them,  must  be  cut  before  the  firemen  can  put  up  their  ladders.  If 
the  ends  of  these  wires  fall  across  one  which  carries  power  to  trolley 
lines  or  to  machines  in  factories,  they  become  deadly.  In  such  cases  the 
firemen  have  to  let  the  fire  burn  until  the  current  in  the  power  wire  is 
shut  off.  In  some  large  cities  the  telephone  wires  are  put  under  ground. 

A blind  boy  of  Chillicothe,  feeling  his  way  home,  put  his  arm  around 
a pole  and  touched  the  fallen  end  of  a wire.  Four  thousand  volts  passed 
through  his  body  and  he  was  thrown  thirty  feet,  alighting  in  the  street 
dead. 

While  using  a telephone  it  is  unwise  to  touch  another  telephone,  or 
any  metal  connected  with  the  earth,  for  there  is  danger  of  getting  a 
severe  shock  or  a bad  burn  from  the  current  passing  through  one’s 
hands.  A lady  in  a railway  office  tried  to  use  telephones  of  different 
companies  at  the  same  time  and  the  current  made  a short  circuit  through 
her  arm  so  that  she  could  not  let  go  of  the  telephones.  The  station  agent 
tore  one  of  them  from  her  grasp,  releasing  her  from  the  current. 

The  telephone  should  not  be  used  during  a thunder  storm.  Accidents 
from  lightning  coming  in  on  the  wire  are  common.  A lady  was  called 
by  telephone  during  a storm.  While  she  was  talking,  lightning  struck 
the  telephone  wire  and  she  suffered  a terrific  shock.  The  hair  was 
burned  from  her  head  and  she  was  unconscious  for  several  hours. 


DANGERS  AND  CHEMISTRY  OF  FIRE'. 


58 


LESSON  NO.  27 

To  Save  Lives  of  Persons 

STUNNED  BY  ELECTRICITY 

At  thousands  of  street  corners  in  cities  may  be  seen  groups  of  electric 
wires  carrying  currents  of  both  high  and  low  power  on  the  same  poles, 
or  crossing  at  right  angles.  On  the  poles  are  street-light  wires  carrying 
a charge  of  electricity  one-third  of  which  would  kill  the  strongest  man. 
Below  these  may  be  telephone  wires  which  would  Decome  red-not,  if  a 
broken  light  or  power  wire  should  fall  across  them.  Fire  may  be  car- 
ried into  100  houses  at  once  by  such  an  accident.  There  may  also  be 
telegraph  wires  large  enough  to  carry  a charge  that  would  kill  a man, 
and  messenger  and  fire  alarm  wires  which  might  guide  a deadly  charge. 

Below  all  these  passes  the  trolley  wire  upon  which  a current  of  at 
least  500  volts  is  put.  A force  which  will  kill  one  if  all  of  it  should 
pass  through  one.  Often,  above  them  all  are  wires  which  are  carrying 
power  to  run  machines  in  factories.  These  wires  may  break  or  sag  and 
charge  the  other  wires  with  a current  of  dangerous  power.  Such  breaks 
may  come  from  the  pressure  of  a high  wind,  but  they  oftener  result  from 
the  swaying  of  a branch  of  a shade  tree. 

In  Cincinnati,  a light  wire,  on  which  was  a current  of  6,500  volts, 
was  broken  during  a storm  and  a young  lady,  who  in  passing  pushed 
it  aside  with  her  hand,  was  instantly  killed.  In  the  Ohio  penitentiary 
1,700  volts  are  used  in  executing  a murderer.  In  New  York  1,200  volts 
are  used  for  a like  purpose,  and  this  voltage  is  but  one-fifth  as  power- 
ful as  that  usual  in  street  lighting  service. 

HOW  AN  ELECTRIC  SHOCK  FEELS 

The  Assistant  Chief  of  the  Fire  Department  of  Trenton,  N.  J.,  had 
a narrow  escape  from  being  shocked  to  death  by  an  electric  current 
when  an  overhead  wire  fell  on  his  shoulders  in  speaking  of  it  he  said : 

“The  shock  was  terrible.  First  was  a blow  on  the  shoulder  which 
knocked  me  down.  It  was  heavy,  but  did  not  hurt.  It  seemed  weighty, 
and  when  I struck  the  ground  I could  neither  speak  nor  breathe.  I felt 
as  if  my  whole  body  was  being  crushed  and  still  there  was  no  pain.  The 
weight  seemed  to  continue,  I seemed  to  be  sinking,  and  still  there  was  no 
pain.  There  was  then  relief  suddenly  and  I was  picked  up  by  someone 
and  carried  out.  This  was  after  the  wire  had  rolled  off,  and  I could 
hear  what  was  said  about  me.  I knew  what  was  going  on  and  yet  I 
could  not  speak.  In  a few  minutes  I knew  what  had  happened.” 


DANGERS  AND  CHEMISTRY  OF  FIRE. 


59 


WHAT  TO  DO  WHEN  ONE  IS  STUNNED 

When  one  is  stunned  by  electricity,  either  from  a dynamo,  and  is  still 
touching  the  metal  or  wire,  so  that  the  current  is  passing  through  him, 
parting  him  from  the  wire  is  very  dangerous.  The  person  trying  to 
remove  the  wire  must  stand  on  a board  or  some  dry  clothing  and  touch 
the  wire  only  with  a stick  of  wood,  dry  rope  or  a coat,  or  protect  his 
hands  with  heavy  rubber  gloves. 

In  some  cases  a life  may  be  saved  by  lifting  the  stunned  one  from 
the  earth  by  his  clothing.  In  other  cases  the  dynamo  at  the  end  of  the 
line  can  be  stopped. 

When  he  is  clear  of  the  wire,  and  a doctor  is  called,  dash  water  in 
his  face  and  rub  his  spine  with  ice.  Do  not  give  him  anything  to  swallow. 

HOW  TO  BRING  THE  STUNNED  TO  LIFE 

One  stunned  by  a current  of  electricity  passing  through  his  body 
would  not  be  likely  to  die  if  there  were  persons  near  him  who  knew 
how  to  help  him  and  would  do  it  quickly.  The  shock  of  the  current 
makes  his  muscles  stiff  so  that  he  cannot  use  them,  and  as  the  heart  is  a 
muscle,  it  sto*ps  too.  If  nothing  is  done  he  will  never  move  again.  But  if 
his  lungs  are  made  to  fill  with  air  every  few  seconds  as  in  life,  he  may 
get  well. 

To  make  one  stunned  breathe,  put  a tightly  rolled  coat  or  blanket 
under  his  neck  and  shoulders  as  he  lies  upon  his  back.  This  is  to 
straighten  his  windpipe.  His  tongue  should  then  be  held  out  to  keep 
it  from  closing  his  throat.  A handkerchief  used  to  protect  the  operator’s 
fingers  will  prevent  the  tongue  from  slipping  back.  If  the  teeth  are 
clinched  they  may  be  pried  apart  and  kept  open  with  a piece  of  wood. 
One  person  should  stand  behind  his  head  and  catch  hold  of  both  arms  at 
the  elbow,  drawing  them  backward  over  the  head  and  pull  on  them  long 
enough  to  say  slowly  “One  hundred  and  one.”  Then  move  them  down- 
ward and  press  the  elbows  hard  against  the  sides  of  his  chest.  Then  say 
one  hundred  and  one  again.  These  motions  must  be  made  again  and 
again.  If  the  movements  are  made  slowly,  using  the  words  between,  he 
is  forced  to  take  15  breaths  each  minute,  which  is  the  right  number. 
Doing  this  is  tiresome  work.  If  there  are  several  persons  present  it  is 
wise  to  have  one  for  working  the  arms  and  another  to  rub  his  legs  hard 
until  he  revives. 

The  stunned  one  should  be  made  to  breathe  in  this  way  until  he 
begins  to  use  his  own  muscles  to  fill  his  chest.  Do  not  give  up  until  this 
forcing  of  air  into  his  lyings  has  been  done  for  two  hours,  if  he  does  not 
breathe  for  that  long.  After  he  begins  to  breathe,  he  should  be  kept 
quiet  until  his  heart  beats  are  strong. 


6o 


DANGERS  AND  CHEMISTRY  OF  FIRE. 


LESSON  NO.  28 

Village  Church  Fires 

THE  LOSS  IS  USUALLY  TOTAL 

Through  carelessness  of  the  people  of  the  United  States  more  than 
600  churches  are  burned  every  year.  It  would  cost  more  than  $2,000,000 
to  rebuild  them.  One  might  think  that  as  churches  have  no  cook  stoves 
and  no  children  living  in  them  to  play  with  fire  or  matches,  and  as  they 
usually  are  heated  but  a day  or  two  in  the  week,  few  of  them  would  be 
burned. 

The  churches  in  small  towns  and  in  the  country  are  nearly  all  made 
of  wood.  The  walls  are  made  by  standing  pieces  of  wood  on  end,  nail- 
ing boards  on  the  outside  and  laths  to  hold  mortar  on  the  inside.  So  the 
wall  is  like  a row  of  wooden  flues.  A fire  started  anywhere  in  the  wall 
would  be  drawn  up  under  the  roof  through  one  or  more  of  these  flues. 
There  are  no  partitions  to  hold  back  the  fire  until  people  can  get  there  to 
put  it  out.  In  most  cases  water  must  be  carried  by  hand  for  some  dis- 
tance. In  many  churches  there  is  a spire  or  steeple  which  acts  as  a 
chimney,  making  the  fire  burn  faster.  So,  if  a fire  is  started  in  the  build- 
ing it  usually  is  burned  to  the  ground. 

More  than  half  of  all  these  churches  are  burned  because  of  careless- 
ness with  stoves  and  flues  and  most  of  the  remainder  by  lightning  strik- 
ing the  spire  which  reaches  up  for  it. 

CARING  FOR  THE  STOVES 

These  churches  are  usually  warmed  by  “cannon”  or  “burnside” 
stoves  which  burn  coal.  There  are  a few  “box”  stoves  in  which  wood 
is  used.  Any  church  stove  which  stands  on  a floor  of  wood  should  have 
under  it  a sheet  of  tin  or  zinc,  large  enough  to  come  out  two  feet  farther 
than  the  stove’s  feet  do.  The  coal-box,  if  made  of  wood,  should  be  kept 
six  feet  away  from  the  stove. 

The  stovepipe  gives  up  a great  deal  of  heat.  If  there  is  not  a coat 
of  soot  in  it,  it  gives  out  as  much  heat  as  the  stove.  Pipes  and  stoves 
should  be  cleaned  of  soot  twice  in  each  winter. 

Some  one  should  see  to  it  that  the  insides  of  the  stove  pipes  are 
scraped  before  cold  weather  comes  every  autumn.  The  stovepipes  not 
being  used  during  the  summer,  are  likely  to  become  rusty  enough  to 
show  holes  eaten  through  the  iron  shell,  from  which  sparks  could  escape. 

There  is  an  old  verse  about  stove  flues  which  says : 

A fly  and  a flea 

In  a pipe  were  imprisoned. 

“Let  use  flee !”  said  the  fly, 

“Let  us  fly  1”  said  the  flea ; 

So  they  flew  through  a flaw  in  the  flue. 


DANGERS  AND  CHEMISTRY  OF  FIRE. 


6l 


Jarring  or  beating  will  not  clean  a stove  pipe  well ; all  soot  and  scale 
must  be  carefully  scraped  out  before  again  using  the  pipe. 

THE  CHURCH  CHIMNEYS 

A chimney  which  is  supported  on  a board  or  stone  on  top  of  the 
joists  in  the  ceiling  is  very  dangerous  because  the  joists  may  twist  and 
the  chimney  become  cracked  so  that  sparks  can  escape  into  the  attic. 
All  chimneys  should  start  from  a solid  foundation  below  the  ground 
surface. 

The  stoves  and  flues  in  churches  should  be  kept  in  a most  sound 
and  safe  condition  because  the  janitor  goes  away  after  starting  the  fires 
before  service  begins  and,  usually,  returns  only  to  leave  as  soon  as  the 
service  is  ended,  so  no  one  is  there  to  put  out  any  fire  that  may  start 
while  the  room  is  being  warmed  or  while  it  is  cooling. 

LIGHTING  RURAL  CHURCHES 

As  a fire  danger  in  churches,  the  candle  is  gone.  There  is  small 
danger  from  kerosene  oil  lamps  if  they  are  fastened  to  the  wall  or  hung 
in  harps  from  the  ceiling,  except  the  danger  of  their  exploding.  If  the 
wick  does  not  fill  the  wicktube  full,  the  flame  may  ignite  and  explode 
gas  formed  within  the  lamp  bowl.  A dirty  burner  adds  to  the  danger, 
because  it  holds  so  much  heat  that  an  explosive  gas  is  formed  within 
the  lamp  bowl.  The  metal  of  the  burner  should  be  kept  clean  and  bright, 
and  the  lamps  should  be  filled  only  in  daylight. 

The  acetylene  gas  machine  gives  churches  a beautiful  white  light 
and  is  cheaper  than  coal  gas,  but  is  dangerous  if  not  carefully  handled. 
The  greatest  danger  is  near  the  machine,  which  should  be  located  out- 
side the  church  and  in  a brick  house.  One  part  of  acetylene  mixed  with 
seven  times  as  much  air  makes  it  an  explosive. 

Gasolene  vapor  lighting  machines  give  light  that  is  cheap  and  are 
comparatively  safe  for  country  churches,  if  they  are  kept  in  a brick  house 
outside  the  church  and  are  carefully  managed.  The  machine  must  be 
set  low  enough  to  let  the  pipes  slope  upward  into  the  church,  so  gasolene 
cannot  run  into  the  building.  A machine  which  takes  the  gasolene  into 
the  building  is  not  safe. 

Lightning  destroys  more  country  churches  than  any  other  cause 
except  the  stove.  Every  church  spire  or  belfry  should  have  a lightning 
rod  on  it.  The  rod  should  be  examined,  before  thunderstorms  begin  in 
the  spring,  to  see  if  it  has  been  hurt  in  any  way  during  the  winter. 


62 


DANGERS  AND  CHEMISTRY  OF  FIRE. 


LESSON  NO.  29 

The  Burning  of  City  Churches 

HOW  THEY  SHOULD  BE  PROTECTED 

Heating  furnaces  cause  most  of  the  fires  in  fine  city  churches. 
Heaters,  lightning  strokes  and  spite  are  the  three  great  causes  of  church 
fires. 

Sometimes  there  is  loss  of  life  from  a fire  in  a church.  More  of 
these  deaths  come  from  people  getting  jammed  in  doorways  or  stairways 
than  from  being  burned.  To  let  the  people  out  safely  all  church  doors 
should  swing  out  toward  the  street,  and  stairs  to  galleries  should  be 
straight,  wide,  and  not  steep. 

The  greatest  number  of  church  fires  start  from  the  furnace  or  its 
pipes.  In  many  buildings  the  top  of  the  furnace  is  too  near  the  floor 
above  it.  In  others,  pipes  which  carry  hot  air  into  the  church  above 
touch  the  wood  of  the  floor.  If  the  wood  over  a furnace  or  near  a flue 
or  pipe  becomes  charred  it  is  likely  to  take  fire  the  next  time  it  is  heated. 

STEAM  HEATING 

A steam  pipe  should  not  rest  against  wood  as  it  will  char  it  and  then 
set  fire  to  the  charcoal  it  has  made.  It  may  seem  strange  that  steam, 
which  is  water  in  the  form  of  vapor,  can  make  anything  burn.  But  it  is 
true  that  steam,  or  heated  air,  may  make  a pipe  red-hot.  Therefore,  wood 
must  not  come  within  half  a foot  of  a furnace  pipe  and  all  such  pipes 
should  be  wrapped  with  some  material  which  will  not  burn.  Painting 
a tube  black  makes  it  give  out  more  heat.  Where  steam  pipes  pass 
through  wooden  floors  an  air  space  should  surround  the  pipe. 

CHURCH  LIGHTING 

The  greatest  danger  from  gas  lights  in  churches  is  from  the  gas 
brackets  which  have  joints  in  them,  because  they  can  be  moved  to  one 
side  and  the  flame  of  the  gas  may  touch  wood.  These  are  often  put  in 
the  cellar  and  are  sometimes  used  to  make  light  near  the  organ.  The 
lights  in  them  should  be  covered  by  globes.  Really,  there  is  no  place,  in 
which  a light  is  needed,  that  a swinging  gas  bracket  is  safe.  The  num- 
ber of  churches  burned  by  them  is  greater  than  the  number  burned  by 
the  explosion  of  gas  from  leaks. 

The  electric  light  is  fine  for  churches  when  properly  wired.  If  the 
wires  are  put  in  improperly  the  electric  current  may  jump  from  one  of 
them  to  another,  or  to  a pipe  which  runs  to  the  ground.  Electricity  in 
jumping  creates  a heat  which  will  not  only  burn  wood  but  iron  as  well. 
Many  large  buildings  have  been  burned  by  wires  which  were  too  near 


DANGERS  AND  CHEMISTRY  OF  FIRE. 


63 


each  other.  The  wires  should  always  be  inspected  both  before  and  after 
being  put  in  place.  If  the  proper  rules  are  followed  the  wiring  will  be 
perfectly  safe. 

Christmas  trees  in  churches  often  take  fire  from  the  wax  candles 
used  to  light  them.  This  may  not  set  the  building  afire  but  nearly  always 
some  persons  are  seriously  burned  and  others  badly  hurt  in  the  mad  rush 
made  to  escape  from  danger. 

PROTECTING  CHURCHES 

The  people  who  own  a fine  church  can  well  afford  to  buy  water 
buckets  and  keep  them  filled  with  water,  and  place  them  where  they  can 
be  quickly  gotten  when  a fire  starts.  Still  better,  they  might  have  several 
chemical  extinguishers  that  create  a gas  which  smothers  fire. 

A pipe  organ  burns  easily,  quickly  and  with  a great  heat. 

In  the  basement  of  nearly  all  large  churches  one  may  find  stored 
in  a box,  or  under  a stair,  paint,  oily  or  greasy  rags  or  floor  mops,  which 
may  at  any  time  set  themselves  afire. 

Lightning  rarely  strikes  the  high  office  buildings  of  cities,  because 
they  have  an  iron  frame,  but  a tall  church  steeple,  away  from  other 
buildings  is  liable  to  be  struck,  so  it  should  have  a lightning  rod  on  it. 

One  in  six  of  all  city  churches  which  are  burned,  takes  fire  from  the 
burning  of  a building  near  it.  In  more  than  half  of  these  fires  the  heat 
from  the  burning  building  cracks  the  glass  in  the  church  window  and 
pieces  of  it  fall  out  letting  the  blaze  get  in.  So,  to  prevent  such  accidents, 
church  windows  should  be  made  with  metal  sash,  fitted  with  wired  glass, 
which  is  made  with  wire  woven  like  that  used  for  chicken  coops,  but.with 
smaller  holes  in  it.  The  wires  keep  pieces  of  glass  from  falling  out 
when  it  is  cracked  by  heat. 

The  roof  should  be  slate,  tile,  metal  or  gravel.  Doors  which  open 
near  other  buildings  should  be  covered  with  tin.  The  trimming  at  the 
eaves  should  be  of  metal. 

Punishment  for  carelessness  about  fire  dangers  falls  alike  upon  the 

just  and  on  the  unjust. 


LESSON  NO.  30 

Automobiles  and  Garages 

AVOIDING  DANGERS  FROM  GASOLENE 

The  exploding  of  gasolene  destroys  many  automobiles  and  garages. 
If  a leaking  tank  lets  gasolene  or  its  vapor  come  out  the  vapor  may 
be  exploded  by  a lighted  match  or  one  crushed  under  foot;  by  a lighted 
cigar  or  cigarette;  by  a lantern  light;  by  a spark  from  an  electric  wire 


64 


DANGERS  AND  CHEMISTRY  OF  FIRE. 


or  from  a spark  made  by  striking  iron.  The  machine  is  likely  to  be 
ruined  by  the  fire  which  follows  the  explosion. 

While  automobiles  were  being  cleaned  in  a repair  shop  the  bulb  of 
an  electric  light  was  broken  and  the  heat  of  the  exposed  thread  from 
which  the  light  comes,  fired  the  gasolene  vapor  which  flashed  to  a gaso- 
lene can  and  an  explosion  of  the  vapor  in  it  followed. 

A dangerous  practice  common  in  many  garages  is  to  use  gasolene 
to  clean  an  automobile  while  it  is  standing  over  a washing  rack.  As 
gasolene  is  lighter  than  water  it  floats  and  if  ignited  would  burn  on  top 
of  the  water  in  the  rack.  Then  too,  the  gasolene  is  often  used  from  an 
open  vessel  which  is  a very  dangerous  practice.  Men  find  it  easy  to  clean 
grease  and  oil  from  the  motor  and  other  parts  with  a brush  wetted  with 
gasolene,  perhaps  without  realizing  the  danger  in  so  doing. 

DEATH  FROM  EXHAUST  FUMES 

Several  people  have  recently  met  death  by  breathing  air  carrying 
the  exhaust  gases  given  off  by  automobile  engines  while  in  motion. 

One  man  went  to  his  garage  and  started  his  engine.  After  he  had 
been  away  a long  time  his  absence  was  noticed.  He  was  found  dead  on 
the  floor  of  the  garage.  The  engine  of  his  automobile  was  running  and 
the  room,  which  was  small,  was  filled  with  deadly  fumes  from  the  engine 
exhaust. 

In  another  case  a man  and  his  wife  were  found  in  their  garage ; the 
woman  sitting  in  the  automobile  and  the  man  leaning  over  the  door  of 
the  machine,  both  rigid  in  death,  having  been  killed  by  inhaling  the 
deadly  engine-exhaust  fumes,  which  contain  the  very  poisonous  gas 
known  as  carbon  monoxide,  that  is  formed  when  a flame  does  not  get 
enough  air  for  perfect  combustion.  In  each  of  these  cases  the  engine 
was  evidently  not  getting  enough  air.  Air  that  contains  one-hundredth 
part  of  carbon  monoxide  causes  death  in  a few  minutes  to  those  who 
breath  it.  The  pulmotor,  even  if  it  is  used  right  away,  will  not  bring 
back  life,  because  carbon  monoxide  changes  the  blood  so  that  it  will 
no  longer  absorb  oxygen  from  the  air.  The  presence  of  carbon-monoxide 
in  the  air  cannot  be  detected  by  its  smell,  as  it  has  no  odor,  nor  does  it 
irritate  the  lungs  when  breathed,  but  those  who  breath  it  are  made  un- 
conscious and  painlessly  pass  away. 

Private  garages  should  be  as  large  and  well  ventilated  as  possible, 
and  when  the  engine  is  running  while  in  the  garage  it  is  best  to  have 
the  automobile  standing  close  to  wide-open  doors  so  that  the  dangerous 
exhaust  gas  may  be. carried  off.  By  no  means  should  an  engine  produc- 
ing a smoky  or  bad-smelling  exhaust  be  run  while  in  a small  garage  un- 
less the  door  be  kept  wide  open.  To  have  a door  from  a house  open 
into  a garage  is  very  dangerous  indeed. 


DANGERS  AND  CHEMISTRY  OF  FIRE. 


65 


SEWER  GAS  AND  GAS  METER  EXPLOSION 

No  gas  formed  in  sewers  can  explode.  When  there  is  an  explosion 
in  a sewer  it  is  because  of  gas  which  has  leaked  into  it  from  a gas  pipe 
under  the  street  or  from  the  vapor  of  gasolene  which  has  been  emptied 
into  it.  Most  of  the  explosions  in  sewers  are  caused  by  the  ignition  of 
vapor  from  gasolene  which  enters  the  sewer  as  waste  from  dry  cleaning 
plants  or  automobile  garages. 

Gas  meters  do  not  explode  because  no  air  is  mixed  with  the  small 
quantity  of  gas  they  contain,  but,  if  a fire  melts  the  solder  in  the  seams 
of  a meter  the  gas  that  escapes  will  burn  like  that  from  a very  large  gas 
jet.  A meter  often  is  found  on  the  cellar  floor  after  a building  has  been 
burned,  because  the  solder  which  held  it  to  the  gas  inlet  pipe  was  melted 
and  the  shelf  upon  which  it  sat  burned  away.  This  causes  people  to 
think  it  blew  up. 


LESSON  NO.  31 

The  Ash  Heap  and  the  Coal  Pile 

EITHER  MAY  SET  ITSELF  AFIRE 

About  one  hundred  buildings  are  burned  in  Ohio  each  year  by  ashes 
fresh  from  stoves  or  grates  being  emptied  against  boards,  fences  or  sheds, 
or  put  into  wooden  or  paper  boxes  and  in  wooden  barrels.  The  in- 
spectors of  the  fire  marshal’s  office  find  many  wooden  ash  boxes  in  the 
halls  of  large  houses  in  which  a number  of  families  live.  Closets  often 
are  used  to  put  ashes  in.  Many  out-of-door  ash  piles  are  made  against 
a wooden  fence  or  the  side  of  a wooden  building. 

Ashes  that  are  not  hot  enough  to  set  fire  to  wood  will  char  it.  When 
a hot  coal  rests  on  this  charred  surface  it  will  take  fire.  And  if  the  layer 
of  charcoal  on  this  surface  has  any  kind  of  fat  or  grease  against  it,  it 
will  take  fire  and  burn  the  box  or  house  of  which  the  board  is  a part. 

ASHES  THEMSELVES  TAKE  FIRE 

A large  part  of  ash  heap  fires  are  not  caused  by  ashes  just  taken 
from  the  stove  or  grate,  but  from  self-lighting  in  the  heap.  This  some- 
times happens  in  piles  to  which  no  hot  ashes  have  been  added  within  a 
year.  Wood  ashes  contain  many  little  pieces  of  charcoal  which  did  not 
burn  completely  because  there  was  not  enough  air  supplied  to  the  fire. 
In  coal  fires  much  of  the  coal-dust  does  not  burn.  The  greatest  amount 
of  unburned  dust  is  found  in  ashes  from  grate  fires. 

The  moisture  gathered  from  the  floor  in  cellars,  or  from  rain,  if  the 
ash  heap  is  out  of  doors,  may  cause  those  particles  of  carbon  to  take  fire 


66 


DANGERS  AND  CHEMISTRY  OF  FIRE. 


if  in  a mass  through  which  there  is  only  a little  movement  of  air.  The 
most  dangerous  ash  pile  is  the  kind  in  which  the  ashes  are  mixed  with 
sweepings,  rags,  meat  scraps  and  odds  and  ends  of  wood.  If  ashes  are 
stored  in  the  cellar  they  should  be  kept  dry  and  free  from  trash;  if  in 
the  house  they  should  be  kept  in  a metal  receptacle,  not  in  contact  with 
any  woodwork  and  unmixed  with  other  waste  materials.  Hot  ashes  do 
not  have  to  be  red-hot  to  ignite  the  waste  in  an  ash  pile. 

Large  masses  of  cinder  often  ignite.  Cinders  under  walls  of  build- 
ings are  unsafe  if  mixed  with  any  trash  or  if  oils  are  permitted  to  drain 
through  them.  Factories  have  been  burned  by  this  cause.  Old  cinder 
banks  that  have  taken  fire  have  forced  the  removal  of  houses  built  upon 
them.  Linseed  oil  thrown  upon  wood  ashes  causes  a fire  at  some  hour 
during  the  second  day  after. 

There  should  be  a law  against  putting  ashes  in  wooden  or  paper 
boxes,  in  barrels  or  other  containers  which  burn  easily. 

COAL  MAY  IGNITE  ITSELF 

The  soft  bituminous  coal,  most  used  in  Ohio,  may,  when  in  large 
heaps,  take  fire  because  it  takes  up  oxygen  from  the  air  in  such  quantity 
as  to  make  the  coal  slowly  become  hot,  and  if  such  heat  is  not  rapidly 
carried  away  by  free  passage  of  air  through  the  coal  pile,  it  will  increase 
until  it  becomes  hot  enough  to  set  the  coal  on  fire. 

Soft  coal  is  most  likely  to  ignite  itself  if  it  is  broken  into  small 
pieces  for  it  is  packed  so  closely  that  little  air  can  move  through  it  to 
carry  off  the  heat  as  it  is  slowly  formed.  When  soft  coal  is  piled  into 
heaps  while  it  is  damp  or  only  slightly  wetted,  firing  will  take  place 
more  quickly  and  certainly  than  it  would  in  dry  coal. 

Anthracite  or  hard  coal  can  not  set  itself  on  fire. 

When  soft  coal  is  stored  inside  of  a house  it  should  be  piled  on  a 
dry  brick  or  cement  floor  and  should  have  a window  or  other  opening 
in  the  wall  to  let  the  air  move  through  the  pile  to  carry  off  heat.  It 
should  never  be  piled  nearer  than  twenty  feet  from  the  firebox  or  walls 
of  a furnace,  because,  if  piled  closer  than  that  the  heat  from  the  furnace 
will  probably  warm  the  coal  just  enough  to  hasten  oxidation  and  self- 
ignition ; nor  is  it  safe  to  keep  the  coal  in  a wooden  bin,  or  to  pile  it 
against  wooden  posts. 

When  coal  in  a pile  begins  to  heat  through  oxidation,  it  usually 
gives  off  a gassy  smell  and  sometimes  little  curls  of  light  smoke-like 
vapor  or  steam  rise  out  of  the  pile.  It  should  at  once  be  spread  out  in 
a thin  layer  and  allowed  to  become  cool. 

The  infirmary  in  Ottawa  County  burned  down  from  self-ignition 
of  nut-sized  soft  coal  stored  in  the  cellar.  An  early  rising  employe  saw 
smoke  coming  from  a cellar  window  and  found  it  came  from  the  center 
of  the  coal  pile.  No  wood  was  afire  at  that  time,  but  before  the  fire  in 


DANGERS  AND  CHEMISTRY  OF  FIRE. 


67 


the  coal  could  be  put  out  it  had  traveled  up  through  a wooden  box  con- 
taining a water  pipe  and  set  the  building  on  fire. 

Some  kinds  of  Ohio  coal  will  take  fire  when  heated  to  275  degrees 
Fahrenheit,  and  that  is  only  a little  hotter  than  water  is  when  it  begins 
to  boil. 


LESSON  NO.  32 

The  District  School-house 

FAULTS  IN  ITS  CONSTRUCTION 

The  knowledge  we  get  in  our  schools  has  made  this  the  best  and 
greatest  country  in  the  world. 

The  kind  of  school-house  of tenest  seen  is  one  that  is  24  feet  wide, 
36  feet  long  and  14  feet  high  to  the  eave-trough.  A school-house  of 
brick  is  almost  as  likely  to  be  burned  down  as  one  of  wood,  because 
more  than  half  of  those  that  burn  take  fire  from  a chimney  which  is  not 
built  right  and  others  burn  from  careless  feeding  of  the  stove,  or  are 
set  afire  by  bad  men  or  boys.  Usually  the  door  and  the  teacher’s  desk 
are  at  one  end  of  the  building  and  the  other  end  is  a solid  wall.  Near 
the  center  of  the  room  is  a “cannon”  or  “burnside”  stove  for  burning 
coal.  The  stovepipe  runs  straight  up  into  a brick  chimney. 

THE  CHIMNEY 

In  many  school-houses  the  bottom  of  the  chimney  is  a board  which 
sets  on  two  joists.  This  wooden  bottom  of  the  chimney  is  protected 
from  the  sparks  and  hot  coals  which  are  drawn  up  through  the  stovepipe, 
only  by  a layer  of  mortar  thrown  upon  it  before  the  bricks  are  placed. 
Sometimes  this  mortar  cracks,  so  that  the  sparks  drop  through  it  to  the 
wood  and  after  a while  set  it  afire.  Iron  straps  or  a stone  bottom  to 
such  a chimney  makes  it  safer,  but  it  is  hard  to  fit  a pipe  into  a hole 
in  a stone  tight  enough  to  keep  sparks  from  dropping  through  to  the 
room  below.  A chimney  built  in  this  way  is  never  safe.  The  weight 
of  the  brick  may  twist  the  two  joists  which  hold  it  up  and  the  settling 
of  the  chimney  makes  cracks  in  it,  through  which  sparks  can  pass  out 
into  the  attic. 

THE  ATTIC 

The  rough-faced  wood  in  the  attic  is  very  dry  and,  as  school-house 
attics  rarely  have  openings  in  the  ends  to  let  in  cool  air,  they  are  very 
hot.  So,  when  a spark  strays  out  into  one  of  them  it  is  almost  sure  tQ 
start  a fire. 


68 


DANGERS  AND  CHEMISTRY  OF  FIRE. 


This  danger  is  made  greater  by  there  being  no  stairway  or  ladder 
or  hole  through  which  one  can  get  into  the  attic  to  throw  water  on  a 
fire.  Even  in  school-houses  in  which  there  is  an  easy  way  to  get  into 
the  attic,  a fire  is  likely  to  get  such  a start  that  there  is  not  enough  water 
at  hand  to  put  it  out.  In  most  district  schools  the  only  water  one  can 
get  quickly  is  that  in  the  drinking  water  bucket,  and  it  is  not  half  full  if 
the  children  play  hard  at  recess. 

If  a school-house  gets  afire  it  nearly  always  burns  to  the  ground. 

In  every  school-house  there  should  be  a ladder  long  enough  to  reach 
to  the  roof.  There  should  be  a trap  door  in  the  ceiling  through  which 
the  ladder  could  be  pushed. 

The  school-house  chimney  should  be  built  in  the  back  end  of  the 
building  for  several  reasons.  If  it  is  in  the  end  it  can  rest  on  the  ground 
so  it  will  not  twist  and  crack  open  and  let  sparks  into  the  attic.  The 
stovepipe  can  then  be  run  from  above  the  stove  along  near  the  ceiling 
to  the  chimney. 

THE  STOVEPIPE 

A pipe  so  placed  gives  off  one-fifth  as  much  heat  as  the  stove,  and 
this  heat  is  given  off  in  the  back  part  of  the  room  where  it  is  most  needed. 
The  stove  does  not  need  to  be  kept  so  hot  and  the  children  near  the 
stove  will  not  so  often  need  to  protect  their  faces  from  heat  by  holding 
up  their  books. 

Another  reason  for  running  the  stovepipe  through  the  room  in  this 
way  is  that  the  sparks  from  the  stove  have  time  to  cool  before  they  get 
out  to  light  on  the  roof  and  they  are  likely  to  bump  their  heads  in  turn- 
ing from  the  pipe  into  the  chimney  and  drop  to  the  bottom  of  the  chimney 
where  they  can  fire  nothing.  If  they  should  get  out  the  wind  would 
carry  them  away  from  the  building  half  the  time.  In  a straight-up  pipe 
and  chimney,  in  the  center  of  the  room,  the  sparks  go  out  upon  the 
shingles  so  quickly  that  they  may  drop  while  still  white-hot. 

THE  STOVE 

When  one  builds  a fire  in  the  school-house  stove  and  is  then  away 
while  the  building  is  warmed  up,  kindling  or  the  coalbox  too  near  the 
stove  may  take  fire,  or  the  stove  may  get  hot  enough  to  burn  the  floor 
under  it. 

When  the  fire  is  covered  to  keep  it  over  night,  the  ashes  should  be 
shaken  down  so  that  the  coal  which  is  put  in  will  not  come  up  to  the 
door.  The  coal  will  swell  one-third  its  bulk  during  the  night  and  may 
get  high  enough  to  fall  out  on  the  floor  through  the  door,  which  is  left 
open. 

A piece  of  zinc,  or  bricks  laid  in  sand,  should  be  put  under  the  stove 
so  as  to  come  out  two  feet  all  around  it. 


DANGERS  AND  CHEMISTRY  OF  FIRE. 


69 


A school-house  stove  should  be  big  enough  to  warm  it  without  being 
made  red-hot.  When  the  side  of  the  stove  is  red-hot  carbon  monoxide,  a 
very  poisonous  gas  produced  in  the  burning  coal,  comes  out  through  it. 
This  gas,  when  breathed  into  the  lungs,  causes  part  of  the  red  blood 
cells  to  crumple  up.  This  causes  headache  and  dullness  of  the  brain 
during  the  winter  and  the  child  suffering  from  it  grows  pale.  This  is  the 
most  important  fact  in  this  lesson.  Remember  the  deadly  gas. 

Every  school-house  should  have  a slate  or  metal  roof,  because  it 
lessens  danger  from  sparks.  And,  anyway,  a shingle  roof  is  always  the 
first  thing  in  a school-house  to  need  repair. 


LESSON  NO.  33 

Acetylene  Gas 

THE  GAS  FROM  CALCIUM  CARBIDE 

The  flame  from  acetylene  gas  makes  a perfect  light,  brilliant  and 
colorless  like  that  of  the  sun  and  it  shines  through  mist  or  fog.  Few 
houses  are  lighted  with  it  because  the  first  machines  used  for  pro- 
ducing it  were  so  poorly  made  that  many  of  them  explode,  often  killing 
people.  At  that  time  acetylene  gas  was  pressed  into  steel  tubes,  so  that 
400  feet  of  gas  was  held  in  one  foot  of  space,  the  pressure  used  in  filling 
the  tubes  being  so  great  that  gas  was  turned  into  a liquid.  These  tubes, 
five  feet  long  and  five  inches  in  diameter  were  sent  to  houses  for  use  by 
attaching  them  to  gas  pipes.  They  were  found  to  be  more  dangerous  than 
dynamite  bombs  because  they  might  be  exploded  by  jarring  them;  there- 
fore, a law  was  passed  prohibiting  their  use  for  lighting  in  houses. 

Now  there  are  many  machines  which  are  safe  enough  if  they  are 
kept  outside  the  house  and  given  good  care. 

Air  containing  one-thirteenth  part  of  acetylene  gas  will  explode 
with  much  greater  force  than  gunpowder. 

Calcium  carbide  from  which  acetylene  gas  is  made  is  seven-twelfths 
quicklime  and  five-twelfths  coke,  ground,  mixed  and  baked  together  in 
an  electrical  arc  furnace  at  a heat  of  from  6,000  to  7,000  degrees  Fahr. 
(The  greatest  heat  it  is  possible  to  produce  in  furnaces  burning  solid 
fuel  is  3,000  degrees.)  After  cooling  the  carbide  is  crushed  into  small 
lumps  and  packed  in  metal  cans  holding  100  potinds  each,  or  in  one 
pound  packages  for  bicycle  lamps.  Carbide  cannot  burn  but  if  it  gets 
damp  it  will  become  red-hot  and  set  fire  to  wood  near  it.  If  water  gets 
into  it,  the  lime  slakes  and  the  carbon  of  the  coke  unites  with  the 
hydrogen  of  the  water  to  form  the  lighting  gas,  acetylene.  On  this  ac- 


DANGERS  AND  CHEMISTRY  OF  FIRE. 


/O 

count  carbide  should  not  be  kept  in  the  house,  although  the  small  pack- 
ages used  for  bicycle  lamps  have  caused  little  Trouble. 

Miners  use  this  gas  in  the  lamps  they  wear  on  their  caps. 

THE  GENERATOR 

Generators,  as  the  machine  for  making  acetylene  are.  called,  of  the 
size  used  for  farm  houses,  are  zinc  tanks  which  hold  about  a barrel.  In 
them  carbide  and  water  are  brought  together  and  acetylene  and  slaked 
lime  are  formed.  The  gas  passes  from  the  generator  into  a tank  more 
than  double  the  size  of  the  generator.  In  nearly  all  generators  the  car- 
bide is  shaken  down  into  the  water  a little  at  a time,  by  a clock-like 
machine. 

The  danger  of  fire  or  explosion  is  near  the  generator.  The  gas 
that  may  escape  from  a hole  in  a tube  or  from  the  opening  of  a seam 
caused  by  the  freezing  of  the  water  in  the  machine,  would  ignite  and 
explode  if  an  open  flame  or  fire  were  nearby.  A number  of  fatal  acci- 
dents have  been  caused  by  striking  a match  to  see  if  the  work  of  cleaning 
the  generator  had  been  well  done.  If  the  generator  is  located  outside 
there  is  little  danger  of  an  explosion  taking  place  in  the  house  lighted 
by  it. 

THE  NOSE  GIVES  NOTICE 

Acetylene  always  lets  one  know  when  it  is  leaking,  as  it  has  an  odor 
so  strong  that  one  part  of  the  gas  in  ten  thousand  parts  of  air  gives 
notice  of  its  presence  through  the  sense  of  smell.  The  odor  is  like  that 
of  garlic. 

Another  fact  in  favor  of  this  gas  is,  that  the  quantity  of  it  that  is 
needed  to  make  a light  has  but  one-sixth  of  the  explosive  power  of  the 
quantity  of  city  gas  used  to  make  the  same  light. 

Should  an  acetylene  generator  or  gasolene  carbureter  be  placed  inside 
of  the  home  ? The  state  fire  marshals  say  no.  The  water  in  an  acetylene 
machine  will  freeze  if  the  room  in  which  it  is  placed  is  not  kept  warm. 
If  the  water  should  freeze  some  one  might  be  tempted  to  build  a fire 
near  it,  or  to  thaw  out  the  frozen  water-seal  with  hot  irons,  both  of  which 
are  very  dangerous  indeed. 

In  farm  houses  and  churches  generators  are  usually  placed  in  the 
cellar,  and  explosion  may  come  from  leaking  gas  being  ignited  from  an 
open  flame  or  at  the  furnace  fire. 

Portable  acetylene  lamps  are  now  made,  which,  when  of  an  approved 
type,  are  fairly  safe  to  use,  and  it  is  coming  into  use  for  light-houses, 
search  lights,  headlights  and  for  lighting  railway  wrecks  at  night.  The 
great  heat  of  its  flame  has  led  to  its  use  for  welding  iron,  steel  and  other 
metals. 


DANGERS  AND  CHEMISTRY  OF  FIRE. 


71 


LESSON  NO.  34 

Gasolene  Used  in  Washing 

BURNS  MANY  WOMEN  AND  CHILDREN 

Gasolene  is  the  most  dangerous  fluid  known. 

In  the  United  States,  the  taking  fire  of  the  vapor  from  gasolene, 
burns  to  death  more  than  twenty  persons  every  week  and  dangerously 
burns  more  than  sixty. 

Every  day  more  than  twenty  houses  are  set  afire  by  using  gasolene 
carelessly.  A house  set  afire  by  an  explosion  of  gasolene  may  not  be 
entirely  burned  down  because  there  nearly  always  is  some  woman  badly 
blistered  by  the  flames  and  her  screams,  or  the  noise  of  the  explosion 
may  bring  neighbors,  or  the  fire-department,  who  can  put  out  the  fire  be- 
fore it  gets  a good  start.  Still,  the  loss  from  such  fires  is  more  than 
$400,000  a year  in  Ohio  alone. 

Gasolene  gives  off  an  explosive  and  invisible  vapor  all  of  the  time 
while  exposed  to  the  air.  A canful  of  air,  or  a roomful  of  air,  which 
has  mixed  in  it  as  little  as  one-twentieth  part  of  gasolene  vapor,  is  more 
dangerous  than  is  a canful  or  a roomful  of  gunpowder  Air  with  that 
much  gasolene  vapor  in  it  will  take  fire  from  an  open  lamp  or  light  and 
explode  more  violently  and  make  a hotter  blaze  than  gunpowder. 

The  vapor  given  off  by  a tumblerful  of  gasolene,  if  mixed  with  air 
and  ignited,  would  explode  with  as  great  force  as  a stick  of  dynamite 
would. 

IT  WRECKS  HOUSES 

If  an  uncovered  panful  of  gasolene  is  left  in  a closed  room  for  a 
few  hours  its  vapor  will  mix  with  the  air  and  if  a match  is  struck,  or  a 
lighted  lamp  or  open  flame  is  brought  into  the  room,  an  explosion  that 
would  blow  the  house  to  pieces  is  almost  certain  to  result.  When  vapor 
on  the  floor  spreads  until  it  gets  under  a stove,  it  is  drawn  up  by  the 
current  of  air  made  by  the  heat  of  the  blaze,  causing  an  explosion.  When 
the  vapor  has  no  air  mixed  in  it,  it  cannot  be  exploded. 

In  a laundry,  a man  poured  a barrel  of  gasolene  through  a pipe  into 
an  underground  tank.  He  did  not  first  open  another  pipe  which  would 

let  the  air  come  out  of  the  tank  as  the  gasolene  went  in.  So  all  the  air 

in  the  tank  had  to  bubble  up  through  the  pipe  down  which  the  gasolene 
was  poured.  Of  course,  this  air  was  full  of  gasolene  vapor.  The  vapor 
spread  through  two  rooms  and  into  the  door  of  the  engine  room  where 

it  reached  the  fire  under  the  boiler.  The  explosion  which  followed 

knocked  down  two  walls  of  the  brick  building,  burned  a man  to  death 
and  badly  burned  a woman. 


DANGERS  AND  CHEMISTRY  OF  FIRE. 


72 


CLEANING  GLOVES  AND  RIBBONS 

Gasolene  cleans  grease  from  leather  and  silk  much  better  than  any 
other  fluid  which  can  be  bought  for  so  little  money.  So  mothers  and 
daughters  wash  gloves  and  ribbons  and  dresses  with  it.  Grease  is  dis- 
solved in  the  gasolene  and  is  washed  away. 

Any  one  who  uses  gasolene  for  any  purpose  in  a room  in  which  there 
is  a lighted  candle,  lamp,  or  fire,  is  likely,  very  likely,  to  be  badly  burned. 
A lighted  cigar  or  pipe  carried  into  a room  in  which  gasolene  is  being 
used,  will  set  fire  to  the  air  and  cause  an  explosion.  The  ghost-like 
vapor  will  hunt  for  something  to  light  it. 

It  is  not  safe  to  wash  or  clean  anything  with  it  even  on  a porch.  A 
beautiful  girl  of  fifteen  cleaned  her  long  kid  gloves  and  had  them  on  her 
hands  drying.  Her  brother,  as  he  left  the  house,  struck  a match  to  light 
a cigar,  the  floating  vapor  ignited,  and  in  the  explosion  which  followed 
one  of  the  girl’s  arms  was  so  deeply  burned  that  she  never  can  straighten 
it,  and  her  face  is  disfigured  for  life.  Her  arms  were  so  deeply  burned 
that  skin,  and  flesh,  too,  came  off  with  the  gloves.  The  gloves  were  not 
hurt. 

The  heat  in  a pipe  will  set  fire  to  gasolene  vapor.  A man  who  had 
a pipe  in  his  mouth  while  pouring  gasolene  from  one  can  to  another, 
was  badly  burned  by  an  explosion. 

A flying  spark  will  light  it.  A blacksmith  of  Cincinnati  left  the 
screw  top  off  his  partly  filled  gasolene  can,  and  as  he  struck  a piece  of  red- 
hot  iron  a spark  from  it  fell  into  the  can  causing  an  explosion.  The 
shop  was  burned  down. 


USE  IT  OUT  OF  DOORS 

Gasolene  should  never  be  used  for  washing  anything,  unless  the 
work  is  done  out  of  doors  and  not  near  any  building  When  the  washing 
is  finished  the  dirty  gasolene  should  be  thrown  on  loose  ground  which 
will  absorb  it.  Several  explosions  have  come  from  the  taking  fire  of 
the  vapor  while  pouring  the  dirty  gasolene  into  the  sink.  A large  number 
have  come  from  pouring  it  in  the  slop  bucket  where  it  floats  and  gives 
off  its  very  dangerous  vapor. 

In  every  year  there  are  a large  number  of  explosions  caused  by 
putting  gasolene  into  the  water  in  a wash  boiler  while  it  is  over  a fire. 
An  explosion  always  follows  that  foolish  act. 

Woolen  or  silk  goods,  ribbons  or  gloves,  while  wetted  with  gasolene 
may,  if  rubbed  hard,  make  a spark  which  will  set  fire  to  it.  This  spark 
is  known  as  static  electricity  and  is  caused  by  rubbing  the  goods  to- 
gether or  by  brushing  them  while  being  cleaned.  A lady  cleaning  a pair 
of  long  silk  gloves  rubbed  them  together  while  they  were  on  her  hands 
and  made  a spark  of  static  electricity  which  set  fire  to  and  exploded 


DANGERS  AND  CHEMISTRY  OF  FIRE. 


73 


the  gasolene  vapor.  Alcohol,  benzine  soap  or  carbon  tetrachloride 
should  be  used  instead  of  gasolene  for  removing  grease  spots. 

The  Dry  Cleaners  are  now  using  as  much  benzole  as  gasolene,  but 
benzole  is  no  safer  to  use  than  gasolene. 

FIRES  FROM  KILLING  VERMIN 

Each  summer  many  homes  are  burned  by  fires  started  by  house- 
keepers using  gasolene  to  get  rid  of  vermin  which  live  and  raise  their 
families  in  cracks  in  bedsteads,  in  floors,  behind  baseboards  and  under 

wall  paper. 

During  one  summer  sixteen  houses  in  one  state  were  set  on  fire 
from  using  gasolene  as  a vermin  exterminator;  the  fires  were  followed 
by  explosions,  and  five  persons  were  badly  burned  and  four  were  burned 
to  death,  two  of  them  being  children  who  were  helping  mamma. 

These  fires  usually  occur  from  splashing  the  gasolene  about  and  then, 
while  it  is  giving  off  its  vapor,  striking  a match  to  light  some  dark  crack. 
Sometimes  the  gasolene  is  used  at  night  with  a lamp  or  open  flame  to  give 
light,  and  if  the  vapor  from  the  gasolene  is  drawn  up  into  the  flame, 
there  is  an  explosion  which  may  start  a fire  and  surely  would  burn  those 
guilty  of  this  very  dangerous  practice,  which  a law  should  make  a 
crime. 


LESSON  NO.  35 

Gasolene  Stoves 

SHORTEN  WORK  AND  MAY  SHORTEN  LIVES 

A gasolene  stove  makes  the  work  of  the  cook  easy,  but  nothing 
in  common  use  in  houses  is  so  dangerous  as  gasolene  when  it  is  handled 
carelessly.  A new  stove  is  safe  if  care  is  used  in  filling  it  and  in  turning 
the  valves.  The  valves  are  turned  to  the  right  to  shut  off  the  supply  of 
gasolene  to  the  burners  and  to  the  left  to  feed  them.  The  can  above  the 
stove  holds  a supply  of  gasolene,  and  is  called  the  “tank.”  The  opening 
through  which  the  tank  is  filled  must  be  kept  tightly  closed  at  all  times. 

IMPORTANT  DONATS 

Don’t  fill  the  tank  which  stands  above  the  stove  while  a burner  is 
lighted.  Vapor  of  gasolene  is  heavier  than  air  and  will  fall  to  the  blaze. 
Then  a flash  will  frighten  the  person  who  is  pouring  it,  more  gasolene 
will  be  spilled  and  the  room  filled  with  flames. 

Don’t  fill  the  tank  quite  full.  Gasolene  when  it  becomes  warm  ex- 
pands much  more  than  water  does,  and  is  likely  to  force  open  a seam  in 
the  tank,  and  let  gasolene  escape  and  take  fire  at  the  burners. 


74 


DANGERS  AND  CHEMISTRY  OF  FIRE. 


Don’t  fail  to  turn  the  burners  shut  before  filling  the  tank,  for,  if  not 
closed  tightly  the  fluid  leaking  through  them  will  create  a vapor  which 
will  explode  when  a match  is  scratched  to  light  the  stove. 

Don’t  allow  too  much  fluid  to  flow  into  the  burner,  or  fail  to  close 
it  tightly  when  through  using  the  stove. 

Don’t  fill  the  tank  without  first  opening  windows  or  doors. 

Don’t  keep  the  gasolene  can  in  the  kitchen.  It  is  not  safe  anywhere 
in  the  house,  but  the  worst  place  for  it  is  in  the  kitchen. 

Don’t  pour  gasolene  from  one  vessel  into  another  in  a room  in  which 
there  is  a fire  or  light.  If  you  do,  the  vapor  of  gasolene,  which  cannot 
be  seen,  will  be  drawn  to  any  fire,  lamp,  candle  or  gas  jet  that  is  near. 

Don’t  fail  to  watch  closely  for  leaks  in  the  tank  or  burners.  Gasolene 
being  much  thinner  than  water,  it  will  leak  through  a smaller  hole  than 
water  can.  If  the  hole  through  which  the  gasolene  is  leaking  is  small, 
one  cannot  tell  that  there  is  a leak,  for  the  fluid  does  not  fall  and  make 
a wet  spot,  but  forms  an  explosive  vapor  as  fast  as  it  comes  out  into 
the  air. 

GREAT  DANGER  IN  FILLING 

Don’t  slop  gasolene  about  for  it  is  more  dangerous  than  gunpowder. 
Three-fourths  of  the  stove  explosions  happen  while  the  tank  is  being 
filled. 

A farmer,  who  was  careless,  filled  the  tank  of  a gasolene  stove  by 
the  light  of  a lantern.  The  vapor  exploded  setting  fire  to  his  clothing. 
He  ran  about  the  building  and  finally  jumped  from  a second  story  win- 
dow. Neighbors  ran  to  his  rescue.  Wet  blankets  extinguished  his  burn- 
ing clothing.  He  was  carried,  unconscious,  into  the  house  and  died  two 
hours  afterward. 

Don’t  keep  gasolene  in  a jug  or  in  a glass  bottle,  for  they  are  easily 
broken ; always  use  a metal  can  which  holds  less  than  two  gallons,  for  the 
fluid  is  so  thin  that  it  cannot  be  poured  from  a large  vessel  without 
spilling  it. 

Don’t  leave  a gasolene  can  open.  Currents  of  air  draw  out  vapor 
from  an  open  can. 

Gasolene  will  give  of¥  130  times  its  bulk  in  vapor ; this  vapor  mixed 
with  50  times  as  much  air  make  an  invisible  gas  which  will  take  fire 
from  a blaze  or  a spark,  and  explode  with  great  force. 

DIFFERENT  KINDS  OF  GASOLENE  STOVES 

It  is  not  safe  to  fill  the  tank  over  a stove  if  its  flame  has  just  been 
put  out.  A lady,  while  filling  a tank,  splashed  some  of  the  fluid  so  that 
it  struck  a hot  burner.  There  was  a flash  of  flame  which  frightened 
her  so  that  she  set  the  two-gallon  can  of  gasolene  on  the  hot  stove  and 
ran  screaming  for  help.  The  house  burned  down. 


dangers  and  chemistry  of  fire. 


75 


In  another  kind  of  stove  the  tank  must  be  taken  off  to  be  filled. 
Another  stove  has  a hinge  in  its  feed  pipe  and  a lip  of  tin  prevents  one 
from  filling  the  tank  until  it  is  turned  down  lower  than  the  burners. 
This  puts  out  the  fire  at  the  burners  by  stopping  the  flow  of  the  fluid 
to  them ; it  is  therefore  of  the  safer  kind. 

If  the  tank  of  every  gasolene  stove  could  be  placed  on  the  outside 
of  the  wall  of  the  building,  where  the  heat  from  the  stove  could  not 
reach  it,  the  vapor  from  a leak  would  be  carried  away  and  not  take  fire 
from  the  burner  while  the  tank  is  being  filled;  such  an  arrangement 
would  prevent  the  occurrence  of  many  serious  accidents. 

The  stove  must  be  fastened  to  the  floor  so  that  it  cannot  be  moved 
against  wood  that  it  might  set  on  fire.  The  small  stove  must  not  be  set 
on  a box,  a shelf  or  on  a barrel-head.  All  gasolene  stoves  should  have 
the  bottom  and  three  sides  enclosed  by  sheets  of  metal  so  nothing  that  is 
easy  to  set  on  fire  can  get  into  them.  The  main  burner  grates  should 
not  be  less  than  two  feet  above  the  floor. 

If  one  thinks  he  smells  leaking  gasolene  he  should  open  the  windows 
and  doors.  Then  he  should  look  for  it  with  his  nose  and  fingers.  If  he 
strikes  a match,  he  may  be  blown  up. 

Keep  the  can  corked. 

One  could  wreck  a house  with  a nickel’s  worth  of  gasolene. 

In  the  United  States  more  than  1,000  persons  are  burned  to  death 
each  year  by  using  gasolene  carelessly. 


LESSON  NO.  36 

Gasolene  for  Lights  and  Other  Uses 

HOW  TO  PUT  THE  FIRE  OUT 

The  most  dangerous  of  all  ways  of  lighting  a house  is  by  the  use  of 
gasolene  lamps. 

Many  lamps  appear  to  be  so  well  made  that  one  might  think  them 
safe,  but  gasolene  is  always  a dangerous  thing  to  have  in  the  house,  and 
even  a good  lamp  may  be  upset  or  broken,  spilling  the  gasolene.  Some 
one  may  try  to  fill  it  while  it  is  burning,  or  the  wick-tube  may  not  be 
properly  screwed  down.  There  is  always  danger  of  the  gasolene  can 
being  upset  or  left  uncorked,  or  of  the  gasolene  being  used  to  start  a 
fire. 

A gasolene  lamp  must  not  be  carried  about.  It  should  be  remem- 
bered that  gasolene  is,  at  all  times,  giving  off  a vapor  which  makes  an 
explosive  of  the  air  with  which  it  mixes. 


76 


DANGERS  AND  CHEMISTRY  OF  FIRE. 


If  the  gasolene  in  the  tank  of  a lamp  or  stove  takes  fire,  it  should 
be  carried  out  of  doors,  if  possible.  The  person  carrying  it  must  go 
backward  so  the  flame  will  be  drawn  away  from  him. 

The  gasolene  lamp,  which  looks  like  a covered  skillet  on  the  shank 
of  a big  fish-hook,  and  which  is  hung  on  posts  in  markets  is  perhaps, 
not  so  dangerous.  In  these  lamps  the  gasolene  flows  down  hill  to  the 
burner  at  the  tip  of  the  hook,  and  being  out  of  doors  so  much  air  moves 
past  the  burner  that  not  enough  vapor  will  escape  to  make  all  of  the  air 
explosive.  But  there  are  some  lamps  for  outdoor  use  which  have  a 
rubber  bulb,  or  air  pump,  which  forces  the  gasolene  down  faster.  These 
are  twenty  times  more  dangerous  because  the  pressure  will  spray  gaso- 
lene into  the  air  through  a leak  or  open  burner. 

CABURETORS 

Many  houses  and  stores  are  now  well  lighted  by  gasolene  vapor,  made 
in  machines  placed  outside  of  the  house,  and  the  vapor  is  burned  in  a 
mantel  like  that  used  with  city  gas.  The  vapor  of  gasolene  is  more  dan- 
gerous to  use  in  a house  than  any  other  gas  because  it  settles  to  the 
floor  and  only  needs  a spark,  or  light  to  explode  it.  Other  gases  rise  and 
are  carried  away. 

The  smaller  machines  which  are  kept  inside  the  house  are  more  dan- 
gerous because  the  gasolene  supply  must  be  brougt  into  them,  and  any 
one  who  tries  to  fill  one  of  these  machines  at  night  is  sure  to  be  blown 
by  the  vapor  reaching  the  light  he  uses. 

The  great  heat  and  power  created  by  the  explosion  of  gasolene 
vapor  which  has  been  ignited  within  a confined  space  makes  it  the  cheap- 
est fuel  for  running  small  engines.  Many  farmers  now  use  these  en- 
gines to  grind  feed,  shell  corn,  pump  water  and  to  make  butter.  Plows 
and  reapers,  sewing  machines  and  grindstones,  can  be  driven  by  them. 
The  only  fire  danger  from  them  is  from  having  gasolene  about. 

The  torches  used  by  painters,  plumbers  and  tinners  for  heating 
metals  are  very  dangerous  indeed.  The  gasolene  within  them  is  kept 
under  pressure  by  a rubber  air-bulb ; they  sometimes  explode  killing 
the  workman. 

Fifteen  kinds  of  liquid  stove  polish  and  several  kinds  of  furniture 
polish  mixed  with  gasolene  are  sold.  They  are  very  dangerous  and  may 
be  known  by  their  odor. 


USING  THE  WRONG  CAN 

Many  sad  accidents  come  from  gasolene  being  mistaken  for  kero- 
sene or  water.  Sometimes  the  store-keeper  fills  the  kerosene  can  from 
the  gasolene  tank.  Sometimes  gasolene  is  thought  to  be  water.  A mother 
once  brought  gasolene  from  the  grocery  in  a tin  bucket.  Her  daughter 
filled  the  coffee  pot  with  it  and  was  burned  to  death  by  its  explosion. 


DANGERS  AND  CHEMISTRY  OF  FIRE. 


77 


Some  peddlers  go  from  house  to  house  offering  a “safety”  or  “magic 
powder”  which  they  say  will  make  a barrel  of  gasolene  as  safe  as  a bar- 
rel of  vinegar.  They  are  all  frauds.  Anything  added  to  gasolene  which 
would  make  it  safe,  would  make  it  useless. 

PATENT  MEDICINES  FOR  GASOLENE 

The  peddler  in  trying  to  sell  this  patent  medicine,  to  cure  gasolene 
of  its  bad  habits,  does  some  startling  tricks.  He  puts  some  of  his  powder 
into  a dish  of  gasolene  and  then  drops  into  it  lighted  matches,  which 
it  puts  out.  He  then  pours  burning  gasolene  from  one  dish  to  another 
without  causing  an  explosion.  Next  he  puts  a cover  over  the  dish  and 
the  blaze  goes  out.  All  these. tricks  can  be  done  with  any  gasolene. 
Gasolene  itself  will  not  explode  — only  its  vapor  when  mixed  with  air 
can  explode.  So,  if  a match  is  dropped  into  gasolene  which  has  not  been 
in  a dish  long  enough  to  give  off  vapor,  it  goes  out.  Gasolene  when 
lighted  burns  like  alcohol  without  exploding.  Any  kind  of  a fire  must 
go  out  if  a lid  shuts  away  the  air  from  it,  for  the  oxygen  of  the  air  is 
needed  for  every  kind  of  burning. 

PUTTING  OUT  GASOLENE  FIRES 

A gasolene  fire  can  be  put  out  by  smothering  it  with  wet  rags, 
woolen  cloth,  flour,  meal,  sawdust,  sand,  or  ashes,  if  the  amount  of  fluid 
burning  is  small.  If  the  amount  of  gasolene  burning  is  large  even  a 
deluge  of  water  will  not  surely  shut  off  the  air  from  it  and  put  the  flame 
out.  A little  water  only  spreads  Xhe  flame,  for  the  gasolene  continues  to 
burn  as  it  floats  on  it. 

If  burning  gasolene  is  boiling  or  flowing  from  a can  or  tank  it  should 
be  cooled  with  water  to  lessen  the  amount  of  vapor  given  off  and  be  al- 
lowed to  burn  itself  out  — if  it  cannot  be  carried  outside. 

The  only  liquid  which  will  surely  put  out  a gasolene  fire  is  known 
as  carbon-tetrachloride,  which  gives  off  a vapor  which  will  smother  it. 
This  liquid  is  used  by  firemen  and  it  should  be  kept  in  homes  for  putting 
out  fires,  and  to  take  the  place  of  gasolene  for  cleaning  ribbons  and 
clothing. 


LESSON  NO.  37 

The  Lightning  Stroke 

WHAT  CAUSES  THUNDER  STORMS 

The  thunder  storm  usually  begins  to  form  in  the  morning  of  a hot 
day.  The  damp  air  near  the  ground  has  in  it  very,  very  tiny  drops  of 
water  which  form  a mist  or  fog.  The  air  filled  with  mist,  when  warmed 


78 


DANGERS  AND  CHEMISTRY  OF  FIRE. 


by  the  sunshine  striking  the  earth,  grows  lighter  and  floats  up  into  the 
sky.  The  cooler  air  of  the  sky  causes  several  of  these  tiny  drops  to  get 
together  to  form  a larger  one,  making  clouds.  Masses  of  white  clouds 
seen  on  a sunny  day  are  called  “thunderheads.”  A cloud  is  usually 
thicker  than  it  is  wide.  One  traveling  through  a cloud,  as  one  may  near 
the  top  of  a mountain,  sees  only  a heavy  thick  mist. 

The  tiny  drops  rubbed  by  the  wind  gather  electricity  just  as  the  cat’s 
back,  or  a piece  of  sealing-wax  does  when  rubbed.  So  every  cloud  has 
electricity  in  it.  As  the  amount  of  electricity  grows  greater  the  cloud 
grows  blacker.  When  the  cloud  is  thick  enough  to  shut  out  the  sun- 
shine the  air  gets  cooler  and  causes  the  tiny  drops  to  “cuddle  up”  and 
form  larger  and  larger  drops.  Soon  these  drops  get  too  heavy  for  the  air 
to  carry  and  they  fall,  making  rain.  You  have  often  noticed  a rush  of 
cool  wind  just  before  a hard  rain. 

THE  FLASH 

When  the  amount  of  electricity  in  a cloud  becomes  much  greater  than 
it  is  in  the  earth,  or  in  another  cloud  near  it,  part  of  it  will  be  drawn  off. 
This  electricity  when  it  jumps  from  one  cloud  to  another,  or  to  the  earth 
is  the  thunderbolt  of  lightning.  What  we  see  is  the  streak  of  air  made 
red  hot  by  the  passing  of  the  thunderbolt.  There  are  many  more  light- 
ning flashes  from  one  cloud  to  another  than  from  a cloud  to  the  ground. 
The  flashes  between  clouds  are  often  several  miles  long;  from  the  cloud 
to  the  ground  they  are  from  one  to  three  miles  long.  One  lightning 

stroke  in  about  one  hundred  travels  from  the  earth  to  the  cloud. 

* 

The  jumping  of  electricity  from  the  feed-wire  of  a street  car  to 
the  trolley  wheel,  makes  a flash  which  is  the  same  as  lightning.  One 
often  thinks  he  can  tell  by  the  flash  where  a thunderbolt  started  and 
where  it  struck.  He  cannot.  The  flash  travels  sixty  thousand  miles  a 
second  and  that  is  too  fast  for  one’s  eyes  to  follow.  If  the  flash  was 
forked  you  may  be  sure  it  struck  at  the  forked  end. 

There  is  always  some  electricity  in  the  air,  the  amount  being  largest 
high  in  the  sky.  A Russian  has  run  a machine  with  electricity  brought 
down  by  wires  from  balloons.  A German  has  figured  out  how  much  the 
electricity  in  a lightning  stroke  would  be  worth  to  sell,  if  he  should 
make  a machine  to  catch  one.  These  gentlemen  must  agree  with  the  poet 
Emerson  who  wrote : 

“The  lightning  has  run  masterless  too  long ; 

He  must  to  school  and  learn  his  verb  and  noun, 

And  teach  his  nimbleness  to  earn  his  wage.” 

We  now  use  thunderbolts  to  pull  us  in  cars  and  to  light  our  houses. 
But  they  are  man-made  in  the  dynamo ; not  cloud-made  in  the  sky. 

In  learning  to  control  powerful  currents  of  electricity  from  the 
dynamo  we  also  have  learned  that  we  can  keep  lightning  strokes  from 


DANGERS  AND  CHEMISTRY  OF  FIRE. 


79 


burning  our  houses,  by  putting  over  each  house  a thick  wire  of  steel  or 
copper,  called  a lightning  rod. 

THE  THUNDER 

What  makes  the  thunder? 

When  a bolt  of  lightning  rushes  to  the  earth  it  causes  waves  in  the 
air,  which  makes  sounds  in  our  ears,  just  as  piano  wires,  when  struck, 
move  up  and  down  making  waves  in  air  which  we  hear  as  music. 

Thunder  is  said  to  “roll.”  This  is  because  several  bolts  of  electricity 
fall  one  after  another;  sometimes  as  many  as  forty  in  less  than  a second. 
The  first  bolt  makes  a hole  through  the  air  down  which  the  others  quickly 
chase.  Each  bolt  adds  a noise. 

You  have  often  dodged  from  a thunder  clap.  This  is  useless.  The 
danger  is  passed  before  you  hear  it.  One  struck  by  lightning  knows 
nothing  about  it  at  the  time. 


THE  DISTANCE 

The  waves  which  make  sound  do  not  travel  so  fast  as  those  that 
give  us  sight.  If  lightning  strikes  one  mile  away  it  is  five  seconds 
before  the  thunder  is  heard.  If  you  hold  a watch  so  as  to  count  the 
seconds,  you  can  tell  how  far  it  is  to  where  the  lightning  struck. 

Electricity  moving  through  the  air  forms  a nitrate  which  makes 
the  ground  richer.  Ozone  also  is  formed.  Ozone  makes  us  feel  fresh 
after  a thunder  storm.  Some  folks  say  thunder  sours  milk.  It  is 
the  ozone  that  sours  it.  The  air  is  always  fine  after  a storm  because 
it  has  been  washed.  Fine  particles  of  soot  and  dust  carrying  disease 
germs,  and  the  gases  from  smoke  floating  in  the  air,  are  taken  to  the 
ground  by  the  millions  of  rain  drops. 

Few  storms  travel  more  than  ioo  miles.  In  the  northern  states 
there  are  about  30  thunderstorms  each  summer.  The  number  of  storms 
is  not  increasing,  but  the  number  of  persons  killed  and  houses  burned 
by  lightning,  grows  greater  every  year.  One  reason  for  this  is  that 
the  forest  trees,  which  are  nature’s  lightning  rods,  are  being  cut  down. 


LESSON  NO.  38 

Protection  From  Thunderbolts 

THE  USE  OF  THE  LIGHTNING  ROD 

Lightning  burns  about  $5,000,000  worth  of  property  in  the  United 
States  every  summer.  The  number  of  persons  killed  by  being  struck 
by  it,  is  not  less  than  eight  hundred.  Many  of  these  persons  would 


8o 


DANGERS  AND  CHEMISTRY  OF  FIRE. 


not  die  if  made  to  breathe,  in  the  way  you  learned  in  the  lesson  on 
shocks  from  electric  wires.  The  number  stunned  by  lightning  is  never 
less  than  five  thousand.  On . the  farms  half  as  many  buildings  are 
burned  by  lightning  as  are  burned  by  all  other  causes  put  together. 

One  of  each  of  three  buildings  struck  by  lightning  is  in  a town  or 
city.  But  few  of  the  high  buildings  in  cities  are  struck  because  they 
have  in  them  water  pipes,  or  gas  pipes,  or  metal  frames  through  which 
electricity  can  move  easily. 

Barns  having  new  mown  hay  in  them  are  most  likely  to  be  struck 
by  lightning.  This  is  because  the  hay  is  “sweating,”  as  the  farmers 
say,  and  warm,  moist  air  is  rising  from  the  barn  to  the  clouds,  just 
as  moist  air  heated  by  the  sun,  goes  up  to  make  a thunder  cloud. 
Moisture  in  air  makes  it  easier  for  electricity  to  break  through  the 
air  over  the  barn. 

DODGING  THUNDERBOLTS 

During  a thunderstorm  do  not  stand  under  any  tree.  One  is  in 
less  danger  in  a house  than  in  a barn. 

It  is  foolish  to  say  it  is  dangerous  to  hold  a hatchet  or  a pair  of  scis- 
sors or  to  be  near  a gas  or  water  pipe  during  a storm.  Pieces  of  iron 
or  steel  which  do  not  reach  the  ground  but  have  air  all  around  them, 
are  no  more  likely  to  be  struck  by  lightning  than  that  much  wood. 
Houses  having  gas  and  water  pipes  in  them  are  not  so  likely  to  be 
struck  by  lightning  as  those  that  have  none.  It  is  foolish  to  say  one 
is  safe  under  a feather  bed  or  in  an  iron  bedstead. 

It  is  best  to  stay  near  the  center  of  the  room  because  lightning  is 
likely  to  run  down  the  rain-wet  sides  of  the  house.  One  should  not 
stand  in  an  open  door.  It  is  not  wise  to  stay  near  the  chimney  because 
it  is  the  highest  point  of  the  house  and  the  moisture  in  smoke  makes 
it  easier  for  the  thunderbolt  to  come  down  to  it. 

A lightning  rod  over  a house  or  barn  carries  the  thunderbolt  down 
outside  to  the  ground,  so  it  kills  no  one  and  sets  nothing  afire. 

Many  horses  and  cattle  are  killed  when  standing  or  lying  near  a 
wire  fence  by  the  jumping  of  a lightning  stroke  from  the  fence  through 
them  to  the  ground. 


WHAT  IS  A LIGHTNING  ROD? 

A lightning  rod  is  made  of  steel  or  of  copper  and  is  run  over  the  roof 
of  the  building  the  long  way  and  has  both  its  ends  buried  in  the  ground. 
The  ends  must  go  down  to  the  earth  that  is  kept  always  moist  by  the 
water  which  fills  our  wells.  If  the  rod  does  not  go  down  to  the  wet 
earth  it  is  useless,  but  not  dangerous.  Standing  up  from  the  rod  are 
pieces  of  metal  about  a yard  long.  At  the  top  of  each  of  these  pieces 
are  sharp  prongs  made  of  some  metal  which  will  stay  bright.  The  more 
prongs  the  better.  A piece  of  the  rod  should  stand  up  near  each  chimney. 


DANGERS  AND  CHEMISTRY  OF  FIRE. 


81 


The  chimney  of  the  cook  stove  needs  one  the  most,  for,  from  that  chim- 
ney moist  air  rises  on  summer  days  during  which  there  are  the  most 
lightning  strokes. 

If  the  branch  of  a tall  tree  hangs  over  the  house  there  is  danger 
from  the  lightning  striking  the  tree  and  coming  down  the  chimney  or  the 
side  of  the  house. 

A wire  clothes  line  should  not  run  from  a tree  to  the  house.  One 
summer  a farmer’s  wife  was  hanging  clothes  on  a line  put  up  in  this 
way,  when  a thunderbolt  struck  the . tree,  passed  along  the  wire  and 
through  her  body  to  the  ground.  She  fell  dead.  The  wire  from  the 
tree  to  where  she  touched  it  was  changed  to  gas  by  the  electricity  which 
passed  along  it. 

Lightning  does  many  strange  things.  It  may  pass  down  through  a 
house  pulling  out  nails  without  setting  the  house  afire.  Persons  killed 
by  lightning  while  sitting,  are  left  so  stiffened  that  they  do  not  fall  over. 
Lightning  striking  a man  is  likely  to  tear  off  his  shoes  because  it  spreads, 
with  a loud  noise,  when  it  reaches  the  ground. 

The  state  fire  marshal  in  his  report  for  1920  says : “Lightning 
caused  129  fires  in  Ohio  with  a loss  of  $312,701.  These  fires  were  all  on 
unrodded  buildings.  Not  one  fire  was  reported  on  a rodded  building.” 


LESSON  NO.  39 

The  Less  Dangerous  Fireworks 

WHICH  BURN  BUT  SELDOM  KILL 

There  are  many  kinds  of  fireworks  used  on  the  Fourth  of  July  in 
the  Northern  States,  and  at  Christmas  in  the  Southern  States,  which  are 
likely  to  kill  a boy. 

Many  cities  and  some  states  have  very  wisely  passed  laws  for- 
bidding the  use  of  fireworks  at  any  time.  Anything  which  when  ignited 
will  explode  giving  off  sparks  and  flame  is  dangerous  to  both  property 
and  life  and  should  be  abolished  without  regret. 

On  what  now  is  called  “an  old-fashioned  Fourth”  more  than  600 
buildings  in  Ohio  were  burned  and  more  than  200  persons  killed  by  fire- 
works. Always  on  this  day  in  times  past  a large  number  of  children 
were  burned  to  death  by  fireworks  setting  their  clothes  afire,  and  more 
than  2,000  children  lost  hands  and  fingers  or  were  made  blind  by  gun- 
powder explosions,  while  many  others  died  from  lockjaw  caused  by  their 
wounds. 

TORPEDOES  AND  CHINESE  CRACKERS 

The  common  torpedo  has  in  it  a wafer  like  the  cap  of  a toy  pistol, 
holding  chlorate  of  potash.  On  this  are  a number  of  pieces  of  gravel. 


82 


DANGERS  AND  CHEMISTRY  OF  FIRE. 


When  a torpedo  strikes  anything  the  blow  from  the  gravel  explodes  the 
chlorate.  A large  and  more  dangerous  torpedo  has  in  it  chlorate,  phos- 
phorus and  chloride  of  antimony. 

A boy  lost  three  fingers  by  trying  to  drive  a nail  through  a torpedo 
of  the  kind  often  exploded  under  the  wheels  of  street  cars.  They  are 
made  of  chlorate  and  sulphur  with  ground  glass  or  sand.  One  maker 
puts  in  them  fulminate  of  silver,  which  is  very  dangerous. 

Red  fire  and  torches  hurt  no  one,  but  they  make  enough  heat  to  set 
wood  afire  and  the  pinwheel  seldom  does  harm  because  it  is  fastened 
to  a tree  or  fence,  but  sparks  thrown  off  by  it  may  set  fire  to  the  cloth- 
ing of  children  or  others. 

The  small  Chinese  firecracker  burns  more  houses  than  any  other 
kind  of  fireworks,  because  so  many  of  them  are  used  by  children.  The 
paper  from  which  it  is  made  glows  for  some  time  after  it  explodes,  and 
if  one  of  them  is  thrown  into  trash  or  into  a house  through  a window 
it  is  likely  to  start  a fire.  This  firecracker  is  a roll  of  paper  with  a 
stopper  of  mud  in  each  end  and  a charge  of  common  gunpowder  in  it. 
Chinamen  work  for  such  small  pay  that  it  is  cheaper  to  buy  these 
crackers  in  China  than  to  make  them  here. 

THE  ROMAN  CANDLE 

The  Roman  candle,  if  well  made,  and  handled  with  care,  is  not 
likely  to  seriously  injure  one.  It  is  usually  “set  off”  in  the  street  and 
may  set  houses  afire,  as  the  “stars”  shot  from  it  by  a charge  of  gun- 
powder are  very  hot  and  will  set  fire  to  window  curtains  and  the  like. 
If  the  stars  near  the  end  of  the  candle  which  holds  the  fuse  are  packed 
too  tightly,  the  gunpowder  in  the  tube  may  explode  and  burst  the  paste- 
board shell,  or  may  be  blown  out  at  the  wrong  end  and  burn  the  hand 
that  holds  it. 

Many  so-called  mines,  fountains  and  flower-pots  make  a very  beau- 
tiful display  and  few  persons  are  seriously  burned  by  them.  Those  that 
whistle  are  very  dangerous,  as  they  contain  a picrate  which  forms  a pow- 
erful explosive  and  should  not  be  used. 

The  toy  balloon  does  not  hurt  the  one  who  sends  it  up.  But  the 
torch  of  shavings  and  rosin  suspended  under  it,  which  when  lighted 
makes  the  gas  that  raises  it,  continues  to  blaze  for  nine  minutes.  The 
paper  of  the  balloon  often  takes  fire  from  the  wind  doubling  it  up.  Then 
the  torch,  still  burning,  falls.  If  it  drops  on  a roof  of  wood  the  build- 
ings takes  fire.  In  Dayton,  Ohio,  five  buildings  were  set  on  fire  in  one 
day  by  these  toy  balloons. 

The  sparks  from  the  German  “sparkler”  may  not  burn  the  skin,  but 
they  are  hot  enough  to  set  fire  to  a child’s  flimsy  clothing,  and  as  the 
wire  in  it  gets  red-hot.  the  “sparkler”  is  dangerous  for  children  to  handle. 
One  of  its  sparks  will  ignite  the  fuse  of  any  other  kind  of  firework,  as 
was  proved  when  a spark  from  one  of  them  lighted  a rocket  in  a pile  of 


DANGERS  AND  CHEMISTRY  OF  FIRE. 


A 


83 


fireworks  in  a Cleveland  store,  causing  the  death  of  six  p^rsorfs/  'and  the 
injury  of  many  others. 


THE  SKY-ROCKET 


Sky-rockets,  if  aimed  high  in  the  air,  burn  few  buildings  because  the 
falling  stick  is  seldom  afire.  But  in  Pittsburgh  a falling  stick  struck  a 
baby’s  head  killing  it  in  its  mother’s  arms.  The  colors  in  sky-rockets 
are  made  by  different  substances  added  to  the  “stars.”  Paris  green 
makes  a beautiful  blue  color. 

A sky-rocket  should  stand  in  a V-shaped  trough  when  set  off.  To 
do  it  any  other  way  the  rocket  may  go  through  a window  and  set  fire  to 
a house.  A rocket  of  common  size  when  set  off  will  go  through  the  body 
of  a man,  or  will  make  a hole  through  the  heaviest  plate-glass  window. 
The  rocket  is  raised  from  the  ground  by  the  force  of  gas  from  slowly 
burning  gunpowder  coming  out  at  a hole  in  which  the  fuse  was  held. 
At  the  top  of  the  tube  that  holds  the  powder  there  are  fuses  fastened  to 
the  stars,  which  are  lighted  when  the  powder  burns  up  to  them. 


“hoppers”  and  “chasers” 

The  “grass  hoppers”  and  “devil  chasers”  which  jump  over  the 
ground  while  exploding  are  not  likely  to  injure  a person,  but  they  are 
liable  to  pop  into  rubbish  piles  or  cellar  windows  and  start  a fire. 

A new  kind  of  firework  called  “son-of-a-gun”  is  shaped  like  a 
lozenge,  an  inch  wide.  It  makes  more  than  twenty  snap  explosions  if 
stepped  on.  Putting  them  where  persons  may  step  on  them  and  get  a 
fright  may  prove  to  be  more  serious  than  funny.  This  type  of  firework 
makes  more  than  20  explosions  and  each  explosion  drives  it  to  a new 
place.  It  is  likely  to  jump  into  a window,  into  trash  of  clothing  or 
one’s  eye. 

More  children  are  burned  to  death  from  their  clothing  being  set 
afire  by  small  crackers  than  by  any  other  firework.  The  prettiest  fire- 
works are  usually  the  least  dangerous  and  fireworks  which  go  up  in  the 
air  are  safer  than  those  that  are  exploded  near  the  ground. 


LESSON  NO.  40 

Deadly  Fireworks 

WHICH  HAVE  KILLED  MANY 

The  toy  cannon  is  a great  joy  to  a boy,  but  it  kills  far  more  than 
its  share  of  children.  It  is  the  wickedest  of  the  fireworks  in  which  gun- 
powder is  the  only  explosive.  The  hurts  come  from  its  kicking,  and  the 
deaths  from  its  bursting,  when  fired. 


84 


v \ 

'DANGERS  AND  CHEMISTRY  OF  FIRE. 

aVj/ 

The'  very  dangerous  fireworks  contain  a mixture  of  chlorate  of 
po^n,  sulphur  and  charcoal.  Substances  which  explode  with  greater 
force  than  gunpowder  are  called  “high  explosives.”  Chlorate  is  one  of 
them.  This  is  the  chlorate  of  potash  so  much  used  for  curing  sore 
throats.  Not  long  ago  a man  put  a lozenge  of  it  in  a pocket  in  which 
were  matches,  which  caused  an  explosion  that  made  a hole  in  his  vest, 
and  in  his  side  too. 


The  “shooting”  and  “lightning”  matches  have  grains  of  chlorate  of 
potash  in  them  which  explode  as  the  flame  reaches  them.  They  may 
throw  sparks  into  rubbish  or  other  material  which  will  take  fire  easily, 
or  perhaps,  into  one’s  eye,  putting  it  out. 


SHOOTING  CANES 

The  shooting  cane  has  an  iron  boot,  in  the  leg  of  which  are  put 
lozenges  so  that  one  of  them  explodes  each  time  the  end  of  the  cane  is 
struck  against  the  pavement.  The  lozenges  are  composed  of  two  parts 
chlorate  of  potash  and  one  part  sulphur,  mixed  with  a little  sand,  pow- 
dered glass  or  coal,  with  gum  enough  to  hold  them  together.  This  makes 
a very  dangerous  explosive.  One’s  foot  is  likely  to  be  hurt  when  a 
lozenge  is  exploded  near  or  against  it,  and  half  a dozen  may  be  exploded 
at  once,  tearing  off  a leg. 

A boy  struck  one  of  these  canes  near  the  feet  of  a passing  lady,  ignit- 
ing her  dress  and  she  was  burned  to  death  in  the  street. 

On  the  Fourth  of  July  in  1921,  a boy  placed  a pistol  cartridge  where 
a street  car  exploded  it  and  another  boy  passing  by  on  the  pavement  was 
killed  by  the  bullet. 

THE  CANNON  CRACKER 

The  cannon  cracker  is  a murderer. 

The  largest  ones  have  in  them  two-thirds  of  an  ounce  of  chlorate, 
and  one-third  of  an  ounce  of  sulphur  with  a little  charcoal.  Those  seven 
inches  long  have  half  as  much.  One  exploded  while  in  a boy’s  hands 
and  no  part  of  either  hand  could  be  found  afterward,  except  one  little 
finger.  In  Cincinnati  one  exploded  while  a man  was  holding  it  under  his 
arm.  He  was  so  tom  into  pieces  that  no  one  could  tell  who  he  was  until 
his  name  was  discovered  in  his  watch,  which  had  to  be  dug  out  of  a 
telegraph  pole  in  which  it  had  been  driven  by  the  great  force  of  the 
explosion. 

Dynamite  is  not  used  in  fireworks. 

The  most  deadly  thing  used  on  the  Fourth  of  July  is  the  toy  pistol. 
Pieces  of  the  paper  caps  carrying  with  them  the  germs  of  lock-jaw,  may 
be  blown  under  the  skin  making  death  certain. 


85 


DANGERS  AND  CHEMISTRY  OF  FIRfy 

Y/y/  "/> 

/ ) 

LOCKJAW 

/.  . '//  . 

Lockjaw  is  caused  by  one  of  the  smallest  of  germs.  This  ^erni  is 
like  a very  short  thread  and  is  so  small  it  cannot  be  seen  by  the  naked 
eye.  It  grows  by  the  million  in  the  bowels  of  horses.  So,  there  are 
always  millions  of  them  in  the  street  dust,  where  it  dries  up  and  is  harm- 
less so  long  as  there  is  air  around  it.  The  germs  stay  alive  in  ice  or  in 
boiling  water.  Doctors  have  kept  them  on  splinters  for  ten  years  and 
then  given  lockjaw  to  mice  by  pricking  them  with  the  splinters.  When 
they  get  into  a wound  in  one’s  flesh,  and  away  from  the  air,  they  grow 
in  numbers  very  fast  by  each  threadlike  germ  choking  itself  in  two  in  the 
middle.  One  of  them  will  have  grand  children  in  an  hour.  While  they 
are  multipling  in  one’s  flesh  they  give  out  a poisonous  juice.  No  one 
can  tell  that  these  germs  are  at  work  in  a wound  for  a week  or  two, 
until  the  poison  has  traveled  along  a nerve  from  the  wound  to  the  spine 
and  brain. 

When  this  poison  reaches  the  brain,  death  is  sure  to  follow  after 
days  of  more  horrible  suffering  than  one  would  have  from  strychnine 
poisoning  and  a mad  dog  bite  put  together. 

A boy  playing  with  fireworks  nearly  always  has  street  dust  on  his 
hands  and  it  carries  these  terrible  germs  of  lockjaw. 


86  DANGERS  AND  CHEMISTRY  OF  FIRE. 


FIRE  SONG 

1 . Listen  to  my  story  old  — my  mission  well  you  know : 

I warm  you  with  my  balmy  breath,  when  chilly  breezes  blow. 
The  Spirit  of  the  Flame  am  I,  God’s  gift  to  man  below  — 
Blessing  or  bane,  as  ye  make  me ! 

Rejoice!  Rejoice!  Your  servant  true  I’ll  be, 

But  O beware!  From  all  abuse  I’ll  flee! 

Your  homes  I’ll  turn  to  ashes,  while  I laugh  aloud  with  glee  — 
Blessing  or  bane,  as  ye  make  me ! 

2.  I’m  the  King  of  Fireland  — my  subjects  love  my  sway; 

I hide  within  the  matches;  in  the  glowing  embers  play; 

I warm  the  little  fingers  on  a frosty  winter  day  — 

Blessing  or  bane,  as  ye  make  me ! 

Rejoice!  Rejoice!  Of  service  true  I sing, 

But  O beware,  lest  cruel  Death  I bring! 

To  ev’ry  wind  of  heaven  I would  now  this  warning  fling:  — 
Blessing  or  bane,  as  ye  make  me ! 

3.  I’m  the  King  of  Fireland  — my  scepter’s  tipped  with  flame. 

I stretch  it  forth,  and  things  I touch  are  nevermore  the  same ; 
Imprison  me  near  walls  of  wood,  and  ye  must  bear  the  blame — 
Blessing  or  bane,  as  ye  make  me ! 

4.  I’m  the  King  of  Fireland  — my  touch  all  things  can  change; 

For  Oil  and  Gasolene  I have  a longing  passing  strange; 

I care  not  who  may  perish ; when  they  come  within  my  range  — 
Blessing  or  bane,  as  ye  make  me ! 

5.  I’m  the  King  of  Fireland  — I leap  across  the  wires; 

In  “circuits  short”  I make  my  rounds,  and  kindle  mighty  fires, 
With  tiniest  of  match-heads  I can  light  my-  fun’ral  pyres  — 
Blessing  or  bane,  as  ye  make  me ! 


DANGERS  AND  CHEMISTRY  OF  F\ Wfa. 


8 7 


VAMPIRES  THREE. 

(a  recitation  for  fire  prevention  day.) 

Wind  Speaks. 

I speed  the  sailor  and  whirl  the  mills 
And  make  a harp  of  the  tree; 

I waft  the  showers  that  bring  the  flowers 
To  dapple  each  dale  and  lea. 

But  woeful  the  ways  that  in  hunger  I choose 
To  blast  with  my  awful  breath, 

For  I shatter  and  wreck  and  naught  may  check 
My  terrible  dance  of  death. 

Water  Speaks. 

I bear  the  vessels  and  turn  the  wheels 
And  give  the  desert  the  rose. 

I ripple  in  rills  and  leap  down  the  hills 
Or  lie  in  a glassy  repose. 

Though  I do  man’s  hest  without  spoil  or  meed 
Cooped  up  in  river  or  lake, 

When  I surge  in  wrath  from  my  wonted  path 
Wild  ruin  I leave  in  my  wake. 

Fire  Speaks. 

I am  vassal  of  man  and  I do  his  will 
In  many  a wondrous  way; 

If  he  chain  me  sure  I am  fain  to  endure 
His  mastery  night  and  day. 

But  should  I escape  from  my  dungeon  red 
By  charring  the  bolts  and  bars, 

I chasten  my  master  with  hell’s  disaster 
And  flaunt  my  head  to  the  stars. 

— O.  H.  Roesner,  in  Magazine  of  the  N.  F.  P.  A. 


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